Synonym Etymologies O

Continuing the look at synonyms through the eyes of the etymologist, this time it is the letter O and old. While it is easy to see this as being used in the sense of 'mature', indeed the word has been used to mean just that for at least a millennium, the Proto-Indo-European root of al was used in the sense of 'grow, nourish' - effectively 'to make old'. Note the Scottish version of auld is a preservation of the Old English ald.

Mature also began in the same sense as the root of 'old' above. It came to English from Latin maturus meaning 'ripe, timely, early', the earliest root being Proto-Indo-European meh-tu 'ripeness'.

Aged, clearly from 'age' and first used as a noun. Here, rather than being related to nurturing crops, the Proto-Indo-European root aiw certainly is used in the same sense for it means 'vital force, life, eternity' depending upon the context.

Senior can be traced to the Proto-Indo-European sen meaning simply 'old'. Not used in English in the sense of 'higher rank' until the early 16th century, prior to that it was only used to denote which of two relatives (nearly always male) having the same name.

Past began as an adjective, and used in the sense of 'done with, no longer existing', not until five centuries ago was it ever used in the modern sense. The word came from 'pass', itself derived from Latin passus 'pace, step' and earlier Proto-Indo-European pete 'to spread'.

Gone is from 'go', itself a simplistic and very ancient word coming from Proto-Indo-European ghe 'to be released'.

Previous has two elements, both Latin where praevius had the same meaning and was comprised of prae 'before' and via 'road'.

Ancient is first used in English around the early 15th century. Prior to that it is seen in the Latin anteanus 'from before', and earlier still in Proto-Indo-European anti 'against' and ant 'front, forehead'.

Historic, clearly from 'historical' and thus 'history', came to English from Old French estoire 'story, chronicle'. Earlier the trail can be seen in Greek historia 'a learning' and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European weid 'to see' and also 'to know'.

That was not what I meant. (H)

Another look at the sometimes ludicrous change in meanings. We tend to blame the dictionary, or more likely the government for any change we have no control over, but when it comes to language it is purely the populous who have full control. Use it in the wrong or a different sense often enough, it becomes part of the language.

Haggard, 'drawn, tired' tired, but in the sixteenth century was used to refer to an untamed hawk in adult plumage, especially a female hawk.

Handsome's original meaning can still be seen if split into its two composite words. Here 'hand some', at least from the fifteenth century, referred to something 'easy to handle'.

Happy is the state of being pleased or contented, and surely couldn't have meant anything else. But in the fourteenth century it was the state of enjoying 'hap', a word meaning 'good fortune'.

Harlot is a derogatory term which is exclusively femail in the modern era. Back in the thirteenth century when the term first appeared, it referred to a 'low fellow'.

Harvest today is the act of gathering in the crops. As this is generally at the end of the growing season in autumn, it is easy to see why 'harvest' was originally a synonym for 'autumn'.

Hazard is a danger, perhaps an obstacle, today but back in the thirteenth century was a dice game - indeed it is mentioned as such in Shakespeare's Henry V.

Headland may be a topographical feature today, a bluff or higher ground, but it began simply as the end of the ploughed strip in a field.

Hearse is today a vehicle used to transport a coffin, but when it first came to England in the fourteenth century from the French herse it described a framework resembling a harrow, but designed to carry candles over a coffin.

Heckle, the harrassment of a speaker, started life meaning the long feathers around the nexks of some birds.

Henchmen today are criminals, albeit not a term used frequently in conversation, but in the fourteenth century it referred to a squire or one who attended horses.

Hike refers to a long, chiefly rural, walk. From the eighteenth century it was used to mean 'jerk, pull'.

History can only be history, a tale or record of events in times past. But no, in the fifteenth century it meant the same as 'story', and appears in the original translation of AEsop's Fables.

Hobby today is a pastime, or perhaps a small hawk, but in the fourteenth century it was a small horse or pony.

Honest may mean 'trustworthy, fair' today, but its early use in the thirteenth century was used to mean 'comely, of pleasant appearance'.

Hoodwink or 'deceive' today, but a more literal sense in the thirteenth century as 'blindfold'.

Horrid is unpleasant today, but when it first came to English from the Latin horridus it had the same meaning as 'shaggy, bristling'.

Hospice/hospital share an origin with 'hospitality' and referred to a place where people could get their head down and most often this was a religious establishment.

Host, at least from the thirteenth century, would not offer a warm welcome as it was used as a synonym for 'army'.

Humour may be laughed at today, but in the fourteenth century was used in the sense of 'sense-changer'.

Hussy today is seen as a derogatory term, used to describe a woman or questionable morals, although I tend to hear it more often used in a jocular way. Historically there was no question of it being politically incorrect in the sixteenth century, for it simply meant 'housewife', and by the early eighteenth century was also used to refer to a woman who was known for her frugal lifestyle.

Hutch, a small pen and usually for a rabbit, began as a storage container in the fourteenth century and would have contained clothes or money.

Hypochondriacs worry about their health incessantly, see symptoms where none exist, but 'hypochondria' began as a general term for the upper abdomen.

A Walk Around the Former Local Mines (in Staffordshire and Warwickshire)

As part of the research for a forthcoming book, I recently walked a route looking at some of the industrial heritage between Tamworth and Atherstone. This is a long circular walk but could easily be made shorter or turned into a linear walk by using the canal or railway to begin at Atherstone. I shall start at any point on the Coventry Canal from Fazeley Junction to Amington Green and head east towards Coventry, aided by Ordnance Survey Map 220.
No matter where you begin note when you cross under bridge 63 and the signs for Hodge Lane Nature Reserve, for we will catch up with this later. Other than the canal itself, the first sign of coal comes at Alvecote, with its marina and the Samuel Barlow pub, named after a haulier who will have moved tons of coal. Pass under Robeys Lane and opposite the ruins of Alvecote Priory, to the left is the Alvecote Pools beyond the railway, created when the ground subsided post-mining and subsequently flooded. This is part of Pooley Hall Nature Reserve, also known as Canal Pool. Note the adjacent spoil heap offers excellent views if you wish to climb it.
Soon you will hear the M42 and as we approach the canal narrows – here the railway once crossed the canal, the arch on the opposite side from the tow path is modern strengthening but on the towpath side the brickwork of the bridge support is typical railway architecture. Beyond note there is a marker post, it has a blue arrow and indicates we are walking the Miner’s Way. Just before where the M42 crosses is bridge 56, leading to Pooley Country Park, take this bridge and follow the metalled road – noting the images steniclled on the support of the motorway bridge. When you see the parking for disabled signposted, take a slight detour and take in the visitor centre and the former winding wheel for Pooley Hall.
Continue and alongside a straight stretch, note the war memorial erected by the colliery to those who fell in the Great War who had previously worked the mine. There are good views across to the left of the canal and countryside. At the bottom of this path is the B5000, turn left, cross the canal bridge, then at the crossroads go straight on and cross the canal again along Grendon Road. Ignore Common Road and take the second right, St Helena Road. Just past Rowena Gardens there is a field gate on the left, here a stone marks the site of the Little Jim’s Cottage miners’ cottage. Look on the right and the first of three stiles heading off to the right where it takes you to a gate, almost invisible until quite near. Turn left here, then at the top at Hollies Cottage, take the path to the right around the cottage, through a kissing gate, and then up a well-trodden grassy path to the top corner of the field and another kissing gate. Walk through, turn left, and take the left path across the stile.

Keep the hedge on your right and walk on until reaching the metal gate, and stile. Cross the road, the meeting of Dunns Lane and Church Road, and follow the footpath waymarked straight ahead through the small wood. Here another stile points us straight ahead, this field passes between the site of the former pit to the right, beyond the woodland, and on the left is the remains of a spoil heap. Follow the hedgerow to a gap, then take a short detour through this gate to see said spoil heap not yet reclaimed by nature. Come back through the gate and turn left and head for the corner of the field. Across the stile and take the drive on the right. This brings you to the A5 Watling Street.
Here head downhill along the bust A5, crossing after the island until reaching the houses lying back from the road on the right. Turn in and find Waste Lane, which we follow south along here along a broad and well-made track. After a while reach Folly Lane and turn right. The aptly-named Waste Hill is to the right and in a while you reach the summit of this road where you will find a metal gate on the left. Pause and look across to see Merevale Hall on the top of the hill in the distance. Shortly we reach the junction with The Common, turn right along this road using the footpath on the opposite side as we skirt Baddesley Common. Eventually reaching Baddesley, take the third road on the left which is New Street, note the monument in the form of the winding wheel dedicated to the miners on the corner.

Walk down New Street until just before the end where it turn sharply left there is a footpath waymarked to the right, follow this gravel path to Watery Lane at the bottom where we turn right. Follow this until we reach the first waymarked path on the left. Through the kissing gate and head to the right across the field to the gap in the hedge ahead. Continue on and come to a crossing over a brook. Cross here and turn left. Pause to see the major railway viaduct above, we will be following the path of the disused railway for a while. Pass under the viaduct and straight ahead to a gate. Go through the gate and turn right. Now keep the hedgerow on the right to parallel the former railway. Occasionally there is the opportunity to pop in to see and even walk the former track bed, but don’t follow it too far as it does not give access to the rest of the walk, although once it did take coal away from the mines here.

Keep going until you have seen the embankment become a cutting and shortly there is a waymarker pointing diagonally across the latter part of the field to a stile. Cross the stile and turn right keeping the hedge on the right and soon come to a gap in the hedge and another stile. Emerge on the road and turn left, take the second footpath on the right and follow the markers taking you around the field keeping the hedgerow on your right. At the far corner is a kissing gate, go through and skirt the single property there by a narrow path. Follow this and along the drive away from the house come to another gate. Go through and keep the woodland on your left and walk between it and the fence until reaching a plank bridge which we cross and come to a kissing gate opposite, go through and at cross the field to the gap where two footpaths form a crossroads, turn right here. Ahead is a kissing gate and you can see further evidence of the dismantled railway to the right as we near. Ascend the steps and then turn left and quickly right across the remains of the disused railway. Now we see a tunnel (albeit effectively a large pipe) which we will go through to emerge between two green fences. On the right is the freight terminal, on the left the railway lines still run with rolling stock here. At the end the path funnels and takes us down to another tunnel, emerging and turning left along the gravel path where the spoil heap is visible to the left. As the path runs out, take the gate on the right and cross the railway track. Turn immediately right and then left when this track terminates at the gate. Soon we come to the modern industrial estate with roads named after former collieries. Cross over and turn left. Follow this through three traffic islands to emerge at Watling Street via Danny Morson Way. Cross at the pedestrian crossing and turn right. Opposite a large old building is an ungated gap which we follow.
Along this track to the top of the rise and turn right through a narrow pathway and eventually come out on Green Lane and a dog leg to the right on to Cockspur Street, turn left at the junction and after the junction of the left, Cockspur Street becomes Hermitage Lane as you leave Birchmoor. At the end of Hermitage Lane we reach the B5000 again. Turn left and we can now choose between Robeys Lane on the right, this a metalled road with no pathway and nothing of interest until we reach the ruins of the priory and the marina again, when we can follow the canal back west to our chosen starting point. Perhaps of more interest would be to continue and turn right at the second traffic island. This is Mercian Way and passes an industrial estate and new housing until, after another two traffic islands, a grassy area to the right heralds the start of Hodge Lane Nature Reserve which we can follow through to the canal and then back west to our chosen starting point on the Coventry Canal.
Altogether this is a walk of more than ten miles (depending upon the starting point). No great climbs but gently rolling landscape with an excellent mix of former industry and modern countryside. As stated at the beginning there is ample opportunity to cut the route short at several points.

Atmospheric Railway

The idea of an atmospheric railway is not unique to South Devon. Trial routes were tried out in Dublin and in London but the most famous is Brunel’s which it was hoped would take passengers the twenty miles from Exeter to Newton Abbot at up to 70mph.

The idea is ridiculously simple. Rather than have the pump on the rails, which is effectively what a steam engine is, position several large pumps along the length of track to evacuate the air from in front of the piston in the pipe, drawing the piston along the pipe and the carriage, which is attached to the piston, is pulled along.

Two advantages over the traditional locomotive were evident to everyone. Firstly travel on the atmospheric railway is almost silent by comparison, while the lack of clouds of smoke, except at the pumping stations, would have made a refreshing change. A third advantage was not so apparent but probably even more important for these trains could not collide despite there being no on-board driver. That the air refilled the vacuum behind each carriage reduced potential motive power to a degree where it was insufficient to move it until the previous carriage had passed the next pumping station. Practical problems beset the project which could not be overcome with the technologies of the day and Brunel abandoned the idea in 1848 after only a year.

Little remains of the route today, save for a pumping station near Torquay and the more obvious building at Starcross. The latter stands alongside the modern railway and is now home to the local yacht club. On the opposite side of the road we find the pub named the Atmospheric Railway. Here the sign-painter has produced an image which some may liken to a GWR King class locomotive or similar. Clearly this individual never took the slightest trouble to ascertain just what the atmospheric railway was.

2013

As this will be my last post of the year and the media is full of what has happened in the last twelve months, I thought I would offer some thoughts of my own. Over the last twelve months or so, some five books in the Through Time series with my name on have been released. As the name suggests these compare modern images with similar views from yesteryear and below I offer a taster from these books, where the older view in each case date from around a century ago.

In these images from Tamworth Through Time we see identical views looking up the hill in my home town of Tamworth, with Tamworth Castle on the right. The road is known as Holloway because it was quite literally hollowed out by the constant passage of wheels, hooves and feet as they crossed the River Tame at what was for centuries the only bridge for miles over this river.



A view of Dr Samuel Johnson’s Birthplace from Lichfield Through Time. Born here in September 1709, he was a sickly baby and his aunt is held to have announced on seeing him for the first time how she ‘would not have picked up such a poor creature in the street’.



From Stafford Through Time come these views of Stafford Common Station. The old image is at it appeared in August 1968, with the modern view from below the bridge featured in the earlier picture.



Two very different scenes from Solihulll Through Time but taken from the same position. What is now Riverdale Drive opposite Malvern Park was previously the former Solihull Brickworks. However there is one remaining landmark, out of shot to the left in both these images, of a Post Office pillar box which is still in daily use.



When photographing English Riviera Through Time, my favourite part of the world, I was struck by something clearly evidenced by these images. First we see the village of Galmpton around 1907, the home of Agatha Christie is situated behind the camera. Note the sapling in the old image is the same tree as that dominating the modern view. This is also true of the background which is devoid of trees in the old image but, although largely hidden in the modern view, litter the scene today.



The same is true in this view of Anstey’s Cove where vegetation is the dominant feature in the twenty-first century.



As usual I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you. Meanwhile I shall take this opportunity to say to one and all a very Happy New Year and wish for you everything you would wish for yourselves.

Emperor Claudius is Dead

On this day in 54AD Emperor Claudius was poisoned in suspicious circumstances and his 17 year old stepson Nero succeeds him. Never being the greatest student of Latin – I gave up after a year of mindless chanting of ‘amo, amas, amat, amamus, amatis, amant’ and all the other verbs I’ll never remember – I do have an interest in links between Latin and Old English, Middle English and Modern English. And I began to think about the meaning of the names of the Roman emperors.

The first emperor was Augustus, whose full name of Imperator Gaius Julius Divi Filius Caesar Octavianus Augustus included Augustus, a title more than a true name, which comes from Latin augere (meaning ’to increase’). This is translated as ‘the illustrious one’ and a title which comes from religious beginnings and a symbol of the holder’s authority over the populace but one which exceeded constitutional status while falling short of god-hood. He is recorded as dying from natural causes.

Tiberius followed, whole ruled as Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus. The origin of the name is obscure, although it seems impossible if Tiberius is not from the river Tiber or the city of Tibur. Tiberius is sometimes said to have died of natural causes, others point to assassination and likely at the hands of his successor.

Caligula was that successor, his full name Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus did not include the name by which he is remembered. This is derived from the footwear worn by his father’s soldiers, the caliga. Hence Caligula means ‘little soldier’s boot’ and doubtless a name which he resented. We do know he was assassinated, although the conspiracy involved so many it encompassed several senators and members of the Praetorian Guard.

Claudius was next in the line. Full name of Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Claudius is derived from claudus meaning ’lame, crippled’. As stated his death was most suspicious. It is generally thought his wife was to blame, Agrippina wanting to see her son Nero in charge.

Nero’s reputation has not improved with the centuries. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, he was named as a baby when his mother clearly had his future well-planned for his name means ‘great and powerful’. He certainly remained in full control of his own destiny to the very end for he committed suicide when he heard the senate declared him an enemy of Rome.

Galba was next in the year known for having four emperors. Galba Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, his name meaning ‘paunchy, fat’, seized power in January and was murdered by the Praetorian Guard led by his successor seven months later.

Otho only lasted three months. Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, his name meaning ‘wealth’, committed suicide after defeat in the Battle of Bedriacum to his successor.

Vitellius was the victor at the Battle of Bedriacum. Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus, his name means ‘calf’ (and probably more suitable for Nero considering his mother’s actions), and was murdered by Vespasian’s troops.

No points for guessing Vespasian was the next holder of the office. Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus was the first emperor for 65 years (since Augustus) known to have died from natural causes. Less is known of the origin of his name, which could either represent vesper ‘evening, west’ or vespa ‘wasp’.

Titus is also said to have died from ‘natural causes’, although this simply means nobody killed him nor did he take his own life but died from the plague - which sounds anything but natural. Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus can define every one of his names but for the one he was given at birth. The origin is obscure, all we do know is it was in use by the time Romulus founded the city in the eighth century BC.

Domitian was next, something of a traditional emperor in that he was assassinated, this time by members of the court. Known as Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus, his birth name means ‘tamed’.

Nerva followed, his name meaning ‘strength’. In full Marcus Cocceius Nerva Caesar Augustus, this emperor died from natural causes just over a year after he became emperor.

Caesar Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus Augustus also died from natural causes. Trajan, as he is remembered, is a name understood to mean ‘the kind-hearted soldier’.

Caesar Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, another who died from natural causes, is better known as Hadrian. Sadly his name does not mean ‘builder of walls’ but ‘from Hadria’. This town in northern Italy has a name which is also seen in that of the Adriatic Sea.

Thereafter the emperors are not as well known or remembered, thus I shall stop here – and not because Antoninius shares an origin with the modern Anthony in coming from the Greek anthos for ‘flower’. However, as ever, I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

A Writer’s Research

As the majority of my writing recalls events which happened before anyone I’ve ever known was born, it takes a great deal of research to produce the finished work. Personally I find all research to be enjoyable, although that for my recent release of Bloody British History Stafford published by The History Press was particularly enjoyable and I’m very much looking forward to producing further volumes.

In preparing the Stafford volume I ploughed through every local newspaper released for the area from the early nineteenth century until the end of the Second World War. I lost count of the number of reels of microfilm I saw scrolling past but soon learned where to find the relevant columns. This would have saved some time had I not been distracted by some of the reporting of the day. Some of the news items would hardly be considered worthy of even a mention today. The reporting style, too, was most entertaining. One story, covered in Bloody British History Stafford, concerns the large fire destroying much of the town centre in 1887. Many volunteers pitched in to aid the firemen, some being interviewed by the local reporter. I found the quotes most amusing. Such eloquence from witnesses regularly given free supplies of thirst-quenching ale during their rest breaks, with not even a hint of a grammatical slip.

Not suitable for inclusion in the book were a number of stories which I made a note of simply because I found them so entertaining. For example can we imagine a modern headline proclaiming how wondrous it must be to live in a certain terraced house as recently the combined ages of the four residents surpassed three hundred years!

With modern transportation methods meat is brought into our towns and cities in easily handled sizes to be trimmed and cut for the customer. Once the slaughterhouses were situated within the town, the animals brought in alive. Several stories were related regarding the cattle and their attempts to avoid the butcher’s slab, always assuming they knew of their destination. It was common for butchers to bring the animal to their premises, the beast led by a halter to its final destination. One butcher could not understand where all his halters were disappearing to, so instigated a thorough search of his servants’ rooms. He found the remains of the halters, each minus the ends, within the skirts. It seems his employee desired a very full skirt in the style of the day, however could not afford the metal hoops to fill them out and found a suitable replacement in the halters.

Escaped animals, presumably those not tethered by a halter, were quite commonplace. One evening in May of 1858, Mr Bridgwood, a butcher in Eastgate Street, lost control of a bullock. It ran into the yard of the New Inn where a young lady was targeted. She fled and escaped when a young child wandered into the path of the now rather angry bullock. The child was knocked down and would have suffered worse than the minor bruising had it not been for the intervention by a man who “seizing a large stick laying conveniently at hand, applied it with vigour to the forehead of the enraged brute.” Others managed to tether its legs, making it topple over and enabling them to break its legs, thus preventing it escaping and allowing the butcher to kill it where it lay – in the middle of Stafford.

However one narrative of Victorian pomposity appeared in an edition from May 1864. The newspaper reported how, while it was mindful a Smithfield (meat market) was a necessity, it was appalled that these creatures were still allowed to roam the streets on the way to the abattoir. It seems on the day of the May Fair two animals were highlighted as to why this must be dealt a most severe and final blow. Firstly one rampaged through the crowded streets until apprehended. However it was the second, a cow which attracted the most attention when it decided “to venture into the District Bank, perhaps in order to pay a call on the mayor.” There is no explanation as to why the mayor was in the bank, nor why they thought the cow may be seeking the man out. However it seems likely the mayor had done something to irritate the newspaper in recent weeks, or maybe he was just extremely unpopular. Yet things deteriorated shortly afterwards when, as the newspaper reported, “in the presence of both sexes of all ages the screams and dismay was apparent to all as it did the unthinkable – it calved. An indecent disgrace and disgusting filth for any town to be forced to endure.” A letter the following week echoed the editor’s sentiments in saying “in 1864 and within 130 miles of the Metropolis (London) this should be allowed to happen!” I still wonder how far from the Metropolis a cow would need to be to give birth in public and for it to be considered acceptable?

Incidentally, I shall be signing copies of Bloody British History Stafford at Waterstones in Stafford from 10am on Saturday October 19th 2013. Look forward to meeting you there.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Tools of the Historical Trade

Recent blog posts have covered the street names and occupational surnames which may or may not prove of interest to authors of historical stories. It occurred to me how it might prove useful to look at some of the tools and terminology used by those in those occupations. That many were used in agriculture comes as no surprise as the vast majority worked the land.

ARTIFICIAL LEECH – as it suggests this blood-letting tool of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries mimicked the natural blood sucker after which it was named. It resembled a bicycle pump with one end where rotating blades with cut into the patient’s flesh and enable the blood to be drawn into the tube.

ASTROLABE – a navigational aid and a remarkably intricate piece of equipment for its day – those from the seventeenth century particularly. Useless during the day, they showed position by lining the instrument up with the stars.

BREAST PLOUGH – an early implement and one with a most misleading name, it is really a broad spade with a broad handle which pressed against the body of the user which cut a narrow swathe across the field, removing the top layer of stubble, weeds, brushwood, etc. This was then burned slowly to produce an ash which was then spread back on the field as a fertiliser. The implement was certainly available by the end of the sixteenth century, and still used in the Cotswolds in the 1930s, although it would seem to be in use much earlier and could well have been seen before the Romans arrived. Note there many different names for this item depending upon location.

BURN-BAITING – the process of using a breast plough and burning that removed.

CHAFF CUTTER – a curved blade was employed to chop the stubble from the crops into smaller pieces. The stalks were enclosed in a rectangular box on legs, both ends of the box were missing so the chaff could be slid along to protrude from chaff box and sliced through. An experienced cutter could make fifteen cuts per minute, less able workers would doubtless have at least scars to show their ineptitude. Chaff was cut into smaller pieces to mix in with the animal feed to ensure nothing went to waste, left whole the creatures could leave this in favour of the tastier morsels. Various models existed from the most basic idea in the sixteenth century to spring-loaded versions by the middle of the nineteenth century.

CROSS STAFF – a navigational aid resembling a television aerial but with cross pieces of differing lengths. Held up to horizon in the direction of the sun or pole star would be a guide to the vessel’s latitude. Looking directly at the sun caused blindness in a number of users.

DENTCHERING – the process of using a breast plough.

EMMET-IRON – another name for a breast plough and common to the south east of England, so-named because it knocked down ant hills and emmet is an early name for the ant (and in current use as a Cornish word for a tourist).

GROZIER – glaziers used lead to hold the smaller panels of glass in a larger pane, the length of lead being trimmed with a grozier.

HUMMELLER – used to remove the beard from the barley after threshing, it resembled a rake but with longer tines and a second piece along the ends to form a grill. Combed through the barley it would remove the unwanted beard.

LATHERKIN – when glaziers used lead to hold together the various glass panes in a larger window, the malleable lead was smoothed out with a latherkin.

LEY – nothing to do with track ways or lines of energies, this ‘ley’ is an alternative northern term for a scythe.

MOUTH GAG – not what it seems, this late nineteenth century implement resembled a large wooden tapering thumb screw which would be placed in the patient’s mouth when they were under to keep the mouth and the airway open.

POSSER – an alternative name for the ‘dolly’ used on wash days. When clothes were washed in a copper boiler the only means of agitating the clothes was with a wooden post with a handle which was twisted by hand to rotate the clothes.

SALVING – salve is a mixture of butter and tar which, when rubbed on to the skin of the sheep in autumn protected them from pests and parasites through the winter when the long fleece provided a welcome home for them. The process ended when the sheep dip proved to be at least as effective at under a quarter of the cost.

SEED FIDDLER – a bag containing the seed to be sowed was suspended by a shoulder strap. A rotating disc allowed the seed to be distributed from beneath the bag and was sent spinning by a bow-like action back and forth by the operator, hence the name ‘fiddler’. Used by the nineteenth century.

SHAUL – a shallow scoop of wood, used for winnowing, While the chaff would be blown away in the breeze the heavier seeds would drop back into the shaul.

SPECULUM – any of various instruments used over many years and used to open any number of body cavities to give a better view. By the look of it they got the idea from the old shoe stretcher, or perhaps the reverse was the case.

TOBACCO SMOKE ENEMA – pretty obvious from the name what it is, but just why mini-bellows blowing smoke up the patient’s backside in the late eighteenth century was thought to help breathing problems is mystifying. Unless everyone in the eighteenth century talked through their ……. no, that can’t possibly have been the case.

TREPANNING – possibly still known as a medical treatment whereby holes are drilled in the skull to cure what were seen as problems caused by demons but were actually insanity, epilepsy, or simply a fractured skull.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Family Business

Following on from last week’s examination of some of the most common street names found in England, for the historical novelist it is as important to have names which fit the character as it is to have an address which is suitable for the era. As such here is a selection of surnames which may or may not inspire an idea or two – incidentally if any of these do give the writer an idea I’d be fascinated to hear about it.

Surnames come from four basic areas: place names, forenames, trades, and a smattering of nicknames. This blog covers the subject of place names quite regularly and, if you require a place name for a specific county for a character, there are some twenty books of mine out there which will give many suggestions. Christian names speak for themselves with examples such as Richardson or Robinson. Trades may be less obvious, although there is always the exception to the rule and Smith, the most common of English surnames, referring to a metalworker. Note this does not only mean a blacksmith, although this is the most common source, but also tinsmith, coppersmith, silversmith and goldsmith. The following is a list of trades which have developed into surnames – I have omitted the most obvious such as Miller, Taylor, Carter, Shepherd, etc., and list these in alphabetical order (only so I don’t duplicate any).

Arkwright – a maker of arks, which at the time would refer to large wooden chests

Bailey – a bailiff and an important official

Barker – not a market seller but one who sold bark used in the tanning of leather

Baxter – is a female baker, also Whitbread as one who produced only white bread and thus for the rich

Bond – yes James’ ancestors were serfs or bondsmen

Brewer – is obvious but included as the female version was Brewster

Chambers – one who managed the private chambers of a man of rank

Chapman – sold goods at a market

Cooper – a maker of barrels

Coward – he may or may not not be brave but he was named for being a cow herd

Dempster – a judge

Dyer – worked in cloth

Farmer – not the obvious, which is comparatively modern, but from fermier or tax collector

Fletcher – fairly well known as the man who made arrow shafts and flights for same

Fowler – trapped birds for the table

Frobisher – a polisher of metal, such as the swords and armour of knights

Fuller – like Walker a method of washing cloth

Granger – was the original farmer

Hawker – a market seller

Hooper – produced the hoops which held the wooden panels of the barrels

Lister – simply another name for a dyer

Lorimer – one who made horse-riding equipment, sometimes said to be just stirrups

Mercer – traded in the finest cloth

Napier – had a selection of cloths used to dry those who had just used a fingerbowl

Parsons – servant of a parson or clergyman

Roper – made ropes

Sawyer – produced logs

Spencer – literally dispensed goods from the stores

Stoddard – a corruption of stot herd, a stot being a young ox

Turner – operated a lathe working wood

Vickers – the servant of a clergyman

Walker – trod the cloth to wash out impurities before it was stretched on a frame to dry

Waterman – rowed a boat

Yates – was a gatekeeper

We should also include a selection of nicknames. Although these are not exactly what we would see as nicknames today. These include Strong, Armstrong, Small, Long, etc which speak for themselves.

Abbot – more likely to be a reference to one seen as arrogant rather than a holder of the office

Bishop – again one seen as arrogant more often than a holder of the office

Blunt – one with blonde hair

Bragg – nothing to do with boasting but an old synonym for bold

Crippen – would have been known for his curly hair

Darwin – literally ‘dear one’ a friend

Golightly – the way they walked

King – once more more likely to be a reference to one seen as arrogant than a holder of the office

Lord – and yet another example of an arrogant individual rather than a lord or one who worked for same

Moody – as with Bragg not what is seems but from modig and another word meaning bold

Pollard – a naturally bald man

Prince – and yet another for the arrogant rather than a holder of the office

Russell – one with red hair

Tait – someone who was cheerful

Todd – is an alternative name for a fox and could have described a cunning individual

Unwin – an unfriendly individual

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Devizes in Wiltshire

A snippet from one of the forthcoming books on the origins of place names. This time it is the county of Wiltshire and the town of Devizes.

Recorded as Divises in the 11th century, this name is one of the very few places in England of Old French origin. Here the name is from devise to describe the '(place at) the boundaries'.

Locally we find Dunkirk, a common minor name in England referring to the Flemish town which was an English possession during the 17th century. The Brittox describes its location near the castle gates, this being fortified by stockades, and Castle Street is of obvious derivation as indeed is Long Street. Trafalgar Place, too, is clearly a reminder of one of the pivotal battles in history.

Hillworth Road speaks of its destination, Wharf Street was cut alongside the Kennet and Avon Canal, Morris's Lane remembers a prominent local family, and Estcourt Street was named after Thomas Estcourt, MP for Devizes from 1835 who served as Home Secretary in the Earl of Derby's government of 1859.

Pub names featuring animals are often heraldic, when a colour is specified they are always from a coat of arms. The White Bear refers to the earls of Kent, the Pelican Inn could refer to Corpus Christi College in Oxford, the Dolphin is featured in many crests and particularly those associated with the sea, while the Black Swan was a mythical creature and a symbol of a rare individual until the discovery of Australia where black swans are indigenous.

The locality would have given a name to the Bridge Inn, The Millstream, and the Southgate Inn; an association with the church is seen in the Bell by the Green and the Lamb Inn; hunting was the inspiration for the names of the Fox & Hounds and Hare & Hounds; and patriotism gave us the Queens Head and the British Lion. The Cavalier will have spawned numerous stories with suggested etymologies, when the most likely is simply it makes a splendid image for a sign, although it does also suggest a royalist and a patriot.

The message at the Four Seasons is telling us it is open all year round, while making an attractive sign usually depicting four separate images. Finally there is the Moonrakers, a name which is said to have originally come from Wiltshire. Locals tell the story of how the Customs and Excise men came looking for smugglers, finding them dredging the waters apparently to retrieve casks of brandy. However the leader of the group, pretending to by an idiot, told them they had seen a large cheese in the waters and were trying to find it. The customs men soon realised the supposed 'cheese' was in fact the reflection of the full moon.

The Three Crowns show the nations of England, Scotland and Ireland all coming under one monarch; George & Dragon clearly points to the patron saint of England and his most famous enemy.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Bloody British History: Stafford

As part of the series Bloody British History, here is a glimpse at my forthcoming volume on Stafford. Not every story involves the spilling of blood and gore or even disease and pestilence as can be seen from the following excerpt.

During the nineteenth century shoemaking was among the major employers in the town. Many worked from home, for the work was mostly done by hand. Workers owned their own set of tools, keeping them in excellent condition and guarding them well. Clearly this was a significant investment and without such would be unable to work.

Thus when one Mr Singer made important improvements to the sewing machine people of Stafford had good cause to be worried. A job they had done by hand all their lives could now be mechanised and production increased greatly. This was fine for those who could afford the new technology but for the rest it spelled financial disaster. The workers could see no alternative but to take strike action.

Yet this could not be a withdrawal of labour in the modern sense but was indeed such in a very real sense for they left Stafford in their droves. Many went to Nantwich in Cheshire. Fairly close to their home town and, more importantly, somewhere the sewing machine had yet to reach. Hence they took lodgings in Nantwich, bringing with them their skills and earning much-needed cash.

Of course their former employers were suffering from a lack of quality but did manage to keep supply lines open with a smaller workforce who were able to produce shoes much faster even if of poorer quality, the new machines could stitch the uppers at some 1,500 to 1,700 stitches per minute.

Yet the manufacturers could not let this continue, poorer quality would eventually lose them business altogether. Customers would find other suppliers in Birmingham, Shrewsbury, Chester and Wolverhampton more than willing to step in. Stafford employers were at a loss to understand just why their workers refused to undergo minor retraining just to use a machine which would make their working lives much easier.

However they were not the only ones to feel the impact. Far harder hit were the families of those whose apparent move away from Stafford was simply to find work. The men found themselves work alright, lodgings were much easier to come by in those days, but the wage packets never found their way back to Stafford. Left without a breadwinner, Stafford suddenly found itself home to women with children rapidly descending into destitution. This was absolutely unacceptable and led to a Stafford shoemaker complaining of how their former workers were “taking the strike as an avenue to divorce”.

Not all shoemakers had deserted their hometown. Poaching was a common way to add to the meagre menus of the majority and, for those with the knowhow, their quarry could be sought directly. This left out the middle man and the only expense was in time and trouble. Oswald Beeman had been adding to his table for years, meaning more of his hard-earned cash as a shoemaker could be spent at the local pub instead of the butcher. With the strike he saw the opportunity to fill his pockets and simply spent more time poaching.

One Thursday in May, Beeman was in the grounds of Creswell Hall, his favourite hunting place. When he saw a keeper approaching he panicked and, as he attempted to unscrew his gun in order to hide the pieces in his voluminous pockets, managed to discharge his gun. Hit from point blank range, the bones in his left leg was utterly shattered above the ankle. Rushed to the infirmary he paid a high price for his illegal activities for that leg was amputated at the knee. Perhaps this was considered to be adequate punishment for there is no record of him ever being charged for his crimes.

Six months after the strike began to hit one manufacturer called a meeting with his competitors. Something had to be done to encourage their workforce back to Stafford otherwise not only would their families starve but they would soon be out of business. An agreement was reached whereby all would pay an extra penny on shoes and twice that amount on boots and welts if they return to work and accept the new technology.

As the workers came home to Stafford the businesses were saved and wives and children were no longer forced to beg for food. While no companies went out of business as a direct result of the strike, it is impossible to gauge whether their action did lasting damage either to the town or the industry.

As usual I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Tamworth Through Time

A second book published last week, a fascinating selection of photographs traces some of the many ways in which Tamworth has changed and developed over the last century.

While Tamworth has revealed archaeological evidence of Roman occupation, it was when the Saxons settled here that the town rose to prominence. As capital of the powerful kingdom of Mercia, the location of its castle at the confluence of the rivers Tame and Anker was a naturally defensible position against the Danes. In more recent times the landscape around this part of southern Staffordshire has been influenced by the Peel family, William McGregor, and Thomas Guy. The Industrial Revolution saw the canal and the railway play important roles. Coal mining then left a scar on the landscape. This has now been covered by a massive housing development which grew with the arrival of families from Birmingham. Within the pages of Tamworth Through Time not only is there a comparison to be made between old and new views, but also between the old residential areas to the north and west and the new developments to the east and south.

As always I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Lichfield Through Time

A new book out this week, a fascinating selection of photographs tracing some of the many ways in which Lichfield has changed and developed over the last century.

The Romans were around Lichfield with a major settlement at neighbouring Wall and Celts were certainly here at that time too. Yet it was with the arrival of the Saxons that Lichfield came into its own. St Chad built the first church, bringing the bishopric of Mercia here in the sixth century and the first cathedral being constructed soon afterwards. Queen Mary’s charter of 1553 made Lichfield a county and created the office of Sheriff of Lichfield, a position which continues until today. During the English Civil War the Royalist stronghold of Lichfield was besieged twice, the second resulting in the collapse of the cathedral’s central spire.

Later centuries saw Lichfield become a city famous for its intellectuals. Among the most famous were Erasmus Darwin, David Garrick, Anna Seward and, undoubtedly most famous of them all, Dr Samuel Johnson. Within the pages of Lichfield Through Time not only is there a comparison to be made between old and new views, but also glimpses into some of the lives of people who have contributed to recent development of this delightful city.

As always I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Archaeology

When giving talks on the origins of place names, I am often asked to name my favourite place name or names. I have no particular favourite any more than any piece of music or song has remained my number one choice for both change with time. In defining place names I do have a particular favourite theme, that is a name which very specifically describes the place so as to give a mental picture.

For example Stinchcombe in Gloucestershire tells us it was a ‘valley frequented by sandpipers or dunlin’; or East Stockwith in Lincolnshire and West Stockwith across the border in Nottinghamshire share an origin in ’the landing place made of logs or tree-stumps’; and Wilby in Norfolk is ‘the farmstead at the circle of willow trees’. While we know a fair amount of life in Saxon England, these names enable us to picture the place very much as it would have looked in the time when the name was coined – and these are images no painter would commit to canvas and no camera could record.

Often the questioner comments how archaeology could also tell us the same thing and yet while the value of archaeology is unquestioned, in the three examples given archaeology would concentrate on the location of the buildings, artifacts, clothing, etc., to build up a picture of life. In the place name we have a picture of the place as the inhabitants would have seen it.

There is also an example of a place name showing an archaeological find which was known before the terms antiquarian or archaeologist was even coined. In Hampshire is a place called Hordle, a name coined before the Domesday survey and described ‘the hill where treasure (or hoard) was discovered’. Note the place could not have been known as such until the hoard was unearthed, we have no notion of the name of the place prior to this, hence it is a little pointless looking for other buried treasure.

Archaeology, at least as a science, is relatively new. Certainly the person who found the treasure at Hordle would never have seen him or herself as an archaeologist. Modern archaeology can be traced to the middle of the nineteenth century when finds were analysed with other sciences now showing the earth was billions and not thousands of years old. Until the finds were examined with a view to understanding what could not be seen, this cannot be said to be scientific archaeology.

Doubtless uncovering artifacts had happened for almost as long as people have been living on the same site for several generations, for human habitation does tend to remain in a certain area as long as climate and conditions do not change dramatically. There is some indication of research being conducted in Egyptian history by the Chinese from the ninth century. However these were undertaken to discover rituals and/or technologies. Relics would then bring parts of the Egyptian culture to China, reverse engineering would enable the Chinese to re-invent lost discoveries, always assuming they were ever discovered in the first place.

Yet perhaps the first true archaeologists who sought information on the lives of early peoples can be found in Italy and the Age of Enlightenment in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Two men in particular could be said to be instrumental in making archaeology a study, if not a science. Flavio Biondo is most often referred to as the founder of archaeology after he documented the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the first part of the fifteenth century. A contemporary of his, Ciriaco de Pizzicolli, travelled through Greece doing much the same on the ancient buildings and relics of Greece, before heading off for the eastern Mediterranean and eventually produced six volumes on his discoveries leading to him being known as the father of archaeology.

With their chosen field a comparatively modern science, archaeologists have the advantage of realising just how quickly advancements in techniques and technologies can happen. Hence wherever possible the finds are recorded and left for future generations to analyse when improvements in equipment, greater knowledge and experience will enable the story of a site to be better understood. This makes perfect sense for while there are undoubtedly many, many more sites to be dug, there is a finite number and that number will never change until man journeys to other planets and finds other long-dead civilizations – and they will have to be long-dead otherwise the present occupants will defend their rights and never allow us to dig their own archaeological sites.

When it comes to understanding history, the value of understanding a name will help the archaeologist and, as I can vouch from personal experience, the reverse is also the case with toponymy benefiting from evidence at a dig.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

US Presidents: Born to lead?

"Some men are born to lead and others have........", well however it went it got me wondering if this was actually true. Whilst social standing would give the child a head start, does the family name or title play any part?

Taken in chronological order, we start with George Washington whose ancestral home is at Sulgrave in Northamptonshire but a surname from the northeast of England describing 'the farmstead associated with a man called Wassa'. Not the best basis for the most powerful man in the world.

John Adams is predictably 'son of Adam' and ultimately from adama the Hebrew word meaning 'earth' and a reminder that the Greek god Zeus is said to have fashioned man from the earth. This could certainly be seen as a man of the people, salt of the earth, and a potential vote winner.

Thomas Jefferson is, again predictably, the 'son of Jeffrey' or Jeufroi when it first came to English shores via the Normans. It is also possibly this is Geoffrey, in which case this is a variant of Godfrey and a name meaning 'peaceful ruler', and certainly an image a politician would hope to project.

James Madison, a name meaning 'son of Maud', a German short form of Matilda which itself means ''strength in battle' and certainly a name which suggests strong leadership.

James Monroe is certainly a Scottish name but one which came to Scotland from Ireland some time during the twelfth century. Here there are two possible Gaelic origins, Maolruadh being 'the red haired tonsured one' or less likely 'a man from the River Roe' in County Derry.

Andrew Jackson clearly 'the son of Jack or Jacques', the christian name is ultimately from the ancient Hebrew Yochanan, itself telling how 'Jehovah has favoured me (with a son)'. Not a particular strong meaning although it could be argued the two strong syllables make the meaning irrelevent.

Martin Van Buren the eighth president takes his name from the Dutch town, thus telling us the family were 'of Buren' in Holland, itself thought to describe 'the dweller in the inner room'. Again not the strongest of meanings for a leader.

William Harrison is, rather predictably, 'the son of Harry, or Henry'. However the name Henry shares its derivation with Heinrich, a German name meaning 'the ruler in the home' and could be seen to be a strong name, in the sense of 'ruler', and also a weakness in only ruling of a few.

John Tyler's family bestowed upon him a name which is a trade name, the 'tiler' is seen in Latin tigele and Norman French tuilier. Hardly an inspirational name, unless the roof of the nation is leaking.

James Polk is an unusual name from one of the Slav nations with an origin speaking of 'the man of Poland'. Doubtless those of Polish descent will find this of interest but it would hardly have universal appeal outside of Poland.

Millard Fillmore at last has a name which may well earmark him for leadership from the day he was baptised. However this is entirely dependent upon this being derived from an Old English christian name, in which case it really does mean 'very famous'.

Franklin Pierce, a name which is derived from the christian name Peter through the French Piers. While this may appeal to Peters everywhere, or even the religious by association with St Peter, it would not be enough to swing an election in his favour.

It is no surprise to find the surname of James Buchanan to be of Old Scottish origin. It is an old place name from Stirlingshire and comes from Gaelic buth Chanain and describes 'the house of the canon' and thus also having religious connections. It seems unlikely the combination of religion and Scotland would be enough to get a person elected.

Universally known as 'Honest Abe', that would certainly have been enough to get Abraham Lincoln elected, however he did not earn that name until around the end of his term of office. His surname is a place name, one derived from the city near the east coast of England, which speaks of 'the Romany colony by the pool'. This is an odd place name for the 'pool' is actually a part of the River Witham which broadens out and is not an actual pool in the accepted sense, while the idea of busy colonists is also incorrect for this was a place set aside for retired legionaires. While the Roman idea might be a vote winner, if the electorate knew this was a retirement colony they might not be so keen to place a cross alongside the name.

Andrew Johnson a name which is clearly 'the son of John' and one where we can go a little further and look at the origins of the christian name. Ultimately this is Hebrew Yochanan and means 'God has favoured me (with a son). Maybe not the most popular surname with the voters.

Ulysses Grant depending whether this migrated to the US from Scottish Grant, Belgian Grand or French Legrand, this is ultimately derived from the same source as Latin graunt meaning 'tall' or alternatively 'large'. Note it was also used in medieval Europe instead of the modern 'senior', when father and son shared the same name. If this last meaning was promoted this may indeed convey the image of grand age and with it wisdom and sagacity.

Rutherford Hayes is a place name, usually one used as a suffix but also found alone, particularly for minor names. As this is fairly common it is difficult to distinguish between the three Old English origins of haes 'the place of brushwood, underbrush', horg 'the enclosure', or hege 'place with a hedge'. None seem in the least beneficial as a strong name for a leader.

James Garfield may be seen to have a name of strength, for this is Old English gara feld and 'the open land shaped as a spearhead (ie triangluar)'. Of course the association with a certain lasagne-loving feline may well detract from any other benefit of the name.

Chester Arthur clearly has a first name for a family name, one which has two possible origins and where both speak of great strength and/or leadership. If this is from Welsh, it is arth 'bear' and gwr 'hero', or if Norse from Arnthorr then arn 'eagle' and Thorr the god of thunder.

Grover Cleveland takes the name of a place in the northeast of England which comes from clif land and tells of 'the cultivated land by the cliff or bank', hardly the most stirring rally call on the hustings.

Benjamin Harrison brings no surprises at as coming from 'the son of Harry or Henry' and, as with William Harrison, ultimately from the German Heinrich meaning 'the ruler in the home' and could be seen to be a strong name, in the sense of 'ruler', and also a weakness in only ruling of a few.

The family of William McKinley had a name which has two possible sources and where Irish or Scottish combines with Norse to refer to 'the son of the white-skinned warrior'. However it is hard to see how this would influence the voters.

Franklin Roosevelt one of two presidents with this surname, the family of merchants from Holland whose Dutch name describes them as coming 'from the rose field'. Their standing in American history would seem to serve them better than the meaning of their name.

William Taft has a name which is a corruption of the Scandinavian toft, although it may be difficult to win many votes for being described as 'an outbuilding'.

Woodrow Wilson is 'the son of William' and a name which would be a potential vote winner if promoted as being introduced to the English-speaking world by William the Conqueror.

Warren Harding has a surname dating from at least the seventh century when most secondary names would describe the warrior, a god, or glorification of some powerful animal. Here the name speaks of 'the son of the hard one', which may be of benefit provided he was not seen as a troublemaker.

The ancestors of Calvin Coolidge brought the family name from Cambridgeshire, a name which describes 'the ridge or escarpment of the hill' from Old English coll ecg. Again nothing particularly stirring about the etymology of this name.

Herbert Hoover is a corruption of the original German name Huber, itself describing 'a man who owns a hube of land', this equates to anything from thirty to sixty acres (depending upon the quality of the soil) for it refers to productivity rather than area.

Theodore Roosevelt the second of this name to serve as president, coming from Holland their name is Dutch and describes them as 'from the rose field'. As previously their reputation probably stands them in better stead than the meaning.

Harry Truman possible the perfect surname for a politician for it means exactly what it says. From Middle English trewe man comes 'the faithful, trustworthy, steadfast man'. Of course this means the electorate would also have to believe him.

Dwight Eisenhower could trace his family's ancestry right back to its origins in Germany where his surname came from their trade as 'iron workers'.

John Kennedy is fairly well known to be from Irish immigrants, the name featuring two elements cinn eide which could be either 'helmeted head' or 'grim head' depending upon the source of the translation. Indeed the translation would be important if it was to be used a potential vote winner.

Lyndon Johnson as with his namesake Andrew this is from 'the son of John' and ultimately Hebrew Yochanan meaning 'God has favoured me (with a son). However the voters did not favour him with a second term of office.

Richard Nixon a name which features a shortened form of 'the son of Nicholas', it is the christian name which may do something to improve the image of a president few would argue is not the least popular in the history of the nation. Nicholas comes from two Greek words nike meaning 'victory' and laos meaning 'people', an excellent vote winner were it not for the association with 'Tricky Dicky'.

Gerald Ford was a man who famously never actually elected to either the presidency or vice-presidency. So perhaps the less than stirring origin of 'the river crossing' hardly matters.

Jimmy Carter takes his name from a trade, carters being 'transporters of goods'. Maybe the thought of transport and hard work would be seen as worthy of election. Ronald Reagan's ancestors emanated from Ireland, their surname comes from Irish riodhgach meaning 'impulsive', not exactly the best trait for a politician.

Of course both George Bush Snr and George W Bush have served terms of office, hence this would tend to suggest this surname did not do a great deal to harm the latter's campaign chances. The name is one of the oldest surnames on record, which started as referring to a place marked by a prominent bush.

Bill Clinton takes his name from a corruption of the village of Glympton in Oxfordshire or Glinton in Northamptonshire. The former describes 'the farmstead on the River Glyme' and the later 'the farmstead marked out by a fence'. Neither of these give an impression of strong leadership.

Barack Obama's family derived their name from an Arabic term meaning 'handsome, good' and, with beauty in the eye of the beholder, may be seen as immodest or boastful and not exactly a desirable trait in a leader.

In conclusion it seems the answer must be a resounding 'no', ancestry in the form of one's name does not suggest good leadership qualities. So back to rolling dice or similarly random selection process.

UK Prime Ministers: Born to Lead?

"Some men are born to lead and others have........", well however it went it got me wondering if this was actually true. Whilst social standing would give the child a head start, does the family name or title play any part?

Taken in chronological order, we start with Sir Robert Walpole. Now while he is generally recognised as the first to hold the position, it did not become an official title until early in the twentieth century. Thus the name of Sir Robert Walpole, a place in Suffolk which is derived from Old English walh pol and describes 'the pool of the Britons'. The word is Saxon for 'foreigner', effectively referring to the Welsh and gave rise to the English name for Cymru of Wales. This could be regarded as patriotic.

Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington. There are two Wilmingtons in England, one in Devon and the other, to which this title refers, in East Sussex. It is important to know which for they have slightly different meanings. Here a Saxon personal name and Old English ing tun combine to describe 'the farmstead associated with a man called Wighelm or Wilhelm'. His family name is also a place name, Compton being among the most common of names and usually found with an addition for distinction. Indeed because the name is so common it is impossible to know where the family name came from without an exhaustive search of the family history, even then it would be unlikely to be certain. However the meaning is invariably the same, from Old English cumb tun it describes 'the farmstead in the valley'. Clearly of no help to a political career.

Henry Pelham, here the place name is found in Hertfordshire, indeed three places Pelham Brent, Pelham Furneux and Pelham Stocking. Here a Saxon personal name and Old English ham speaks of 'the homestead of a man called Peola'. The additions are hardly more inspiring regarding potential leadership, Brent is from 'burned', Furneux recalls the de Fornellis family who were lords of the manor in the thirteenth century, and Stocking is either 'made from logs' or 'tree stumps'. Maybe even a hindrance in the Houses of Parliament.

Thomas Pelham-Hollies, 1st Duke of Newcastle - no surprises to find his title refers to 'the new castle', possibly a sign of leadership. Here the double barrelled name describes 'the homestead of a man called Peola' and 'the place of holly' - no help there.

William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire - although the official name of the county is Devon, it is often referred to as Devonshire meaning 'the scir of the territory of the Dumnonii tribe'. Cavendish is a place in Suffolk, a name meaning 'the enclosed park of a man called Cafna' and almost certainly the origin of the family name. Maybe this could be seen as patriotic, yet patriotism depends upon which side of the fence the observer is sitting. One man's patriot is another man's rebel.

John Stewart, 3rd Earl of Bute - the title is from Old Scandinavian bot 'piece of land', an accurate description of the region. As a surname it can be traced back to a Breton knight who came to England after the Norman Conquest, it is a variation of the Scottish Stuart, from stigeweard 'the warden of the sty'. Not a great vote winner.

George Grenville, a family name which came to our shores from Normandy, avariant of Granville and probably describing 'the grand ville'. Maybe of some help, but only maybe.

Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham - the double barrelled family name features Watson or, rather unsurprisingly, 'the son of Watt'; with Wentworth, a place name found in Cambridgeshire and Yorkshire, which means 'the enclosure of a man called Wintra'. The title is hardly more inspiring, for it is a Northamptonshire place name referring to 'the homestead of the family or followers of a man called Hroca'.

William Pitt the Elder, 1st Earl of Chatham - Pitt is a family name found in the south of England, derived from Old English pytte meaning 'pit, hollow'. The title is from the Kent town of Chatham or 'the homestead in a wood', where Old English ham combines with Celtic ced. This may qualify as the least helpful.

Augustus Fitzroy, 3rd Duke of Grafton - hardly seems worthwhile mentioning the family name means 'son of Roy', while the title is a common English place name with at least nine examples all with a common origin in graf tun from Old English and meaning 'the farmstead in a grove'. Again, not stirring any passions.

Frederick, Lord North - With his title representing his surname, this clearly is a place name and one which is easily recognised but impossible to tie down to an area and no vote winner. William Petty-Fitzmaurice, 2nd Earl of Shelburn - The surname is a combination of French petite and Irish 'son of Maurice', while the title speaks of a lost place name meaning 'the shelter by the stream'. Scenic but not stirring.

William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland - the double barelled surname features elements referring to a Suffolk place name meaning 'the enclosed park of a man called Cafna' and an Old German personal name from Bento. The title clearly comes from the Isle of Portland and describes 'the estate by the harbour'. Not a lot going for William here.

William Pitt the Younger - a surname which is quite common and impossible to pin down to any location where it speaks of 'the pit, hollow'. As bad as his father.

Henry Addington - several places, all 'the farmstead associated with a man called Eadda or Aeddi'. Not of much help.

William Wyndeham Grenville - Wyndeham is a corruption of the place name Wymondam or 'the homestead of a man called Wigmund', while Grenville is most likely a French place name meaning 'the guarded village', that is a stronghold. Might project a sense of security, but only might.

Spencer Perceval - is taken from the first name, itself thought to be 'the pierce valley' and a reference to a poacher or perhaps a soldier who broke through a defensive line. Surely an ironic definition for the only (to date) British prime minister ever to be assassinated.

Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool - Banks is a topographical feature, Jenkinson is derived from Johannes and means 'the child favoured by God', while Liverpool describes 'the thick or muddy pool'. Whatever is gained by the surname is offset by the title.

George Canning - a place name in Wiltshire meaning 'the place of the family or followers of a man called Cana'. Nothing to be gained by this definition.

Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich - Robinson is a surname meaning exactly what is says 'the son of Robin', while the title is 'rich in God or goodness'. For those of a religious mind this may sway the vote Goderich's way.

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington - Wellesley is a place name meaning 'the western woodland clearing', while the title is another place name meaning 'the farmstead associated with a man called Weola'. If his political career had been based on his name rather than his military career he may well have failed.

Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey - is either a nickname for someone with noticeably grey hair and/or beard, or transferred from a Romano-Gaul name meaning 'pleasing, happy'. This could have put a smile on the face of the electorate.

William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne - lamb could easily refer to as someone who tended young sheep, a nickname for someone considerd meek, or a corruption of 'land'. The title is an Old English term for a 'mill stream'. No help here.

Sir Robert Peel - has several possible meanings but with a connection. This could be a reference to a tall person, a pole, a stake - all of which suggest height, dominance, strength, which might be seen as symbolising a strong figure.

Lord John Russell - derived from a christian name meaning 'son of red', which cannot be seen to aid his political career in any way.

Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby both the surname and the title are place name, Stanley is 'the stony woodland clearing' while Derby 'the village frequented by deer'. Not a great help to Edward.

George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen - his double-barrelled surname describes 'the farmstead at the treeless hill' with 'the spacious fort', while the title is a place name referring to the 'place at the mouth of the River Don'. No help here.

Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston - his surname is derived from the Knights Temple, or perhaps a place associated with the religious order, while the surname is probably a place name derived from a surname (Palmer) meaning 'the pilgrim'. Another which may appeal to the religious vote.

Benjamin Disraeli - his surname is clearly a Jewish reference but it is difficult to trace the exact path for there are examples of this place name in various countries. This hardly helps in deciding if the name is good or bad.

William Eward Gladstone - a surname derived from the place in Lanarkshire with a name telling of 'the rocks frequented by kites (the bird)'. Some might see the rare bird symbolically rising and soaring majestically on high.

Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury - the double barrelled surname, Gascoyne is a name derived from the French region of Gascony, itself of unknown origin, while Cecil is from a Welsh Christian name ultimately from the Roman name Sextus. The title of Salisbury speaks of 'the stronghold of the Sorvio', those who inhabited the fort which was Old Sarum. Might be a sign of strength as could the following name.

Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery - the surname is traceable back to Dunfermline and 'the lands of primrose' which translates as 'the enclosure on the moor. The title is from Scotland and a place name describing 'the stronghold on the moor'.

Arthur Balfour - a Scottish surname meaning 'the place of pasture' and of no help to his political career.

Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman - Campbell is Gaelic and described someone with a 'crooked mouth', while Bannerman means 'standard bearer'. Possibly the best so far as a standard bearer, although he might want to hide his apparent sneer.

Herbert Henry Asquith - a surname from a place name of Old Scandinavian origin describing 'the wood of ash trees'. Herbet will never gain any friends with this and David Lloyd-George - the double-barrelled surname takes an early word meaning 'grey' and add a trade for George as a surname means 'farmer', will not see this as a vote winner.

Andrew Bonar Law - Bonar is a surname of French origin meaning 'handsome, of good bearing', while Law is from Old English hlaw meaning a 'mound, tumulus'. The good points of Bonar will be offset by the minus points of Law.

Stanley Baldwin - a composite of words meaning 'bold' and 'friend' would seem excellent credentials for a leader. Ramsay MacDonald - son of Donald is not particularly inspiring, even if we knew what Donald had achieved. Neville Chamberlain - an official in charge of the private chambers of his master and thus a servant, not a leader.

Winston Churchill - a place name describing 'the church on the hill' hardly makes Sir Winston stand out. Clement Attlee - an Old English place name meaning 'at the woodland clearing' would be hard to inspire any voter.

Sir Anthony Eden - a composite of two elements meaning 'prosperity' and 'bear cub' may seem cuddly to a small child but not to the electorate.

Harold Macmillan - name 'means son of the devoteed or saintly one' would be hard-pressed to convince the voters he was in any way credible.

Sir Alec Douglas-Home - Douglas is 'the dark stream' and Home exactly what it seems combine to leave no impression.

Harold Wilson - 'son of William' is as inspiring as the offspring of Douglas. Edward Heath - obviously 'the heathland' and perhaps would leave the country equally a wasteland.

James Callaghan - 'descendant of the one of turmoil or strife', considering the problems of his short period in office, is probably well named.

Margaret Thatcher - a trade, one who thatches roofs could be seen to be keeping us dry and warm, although these hardly seem attributes which instantly spring to mind when thinking of the Iron Lady.

John Major - a French name meaning 'the council of a spear', quite possibly the best message of them all, conveys a message of democracy backed by leadership and strength.

Tony Blair - a Gaelic word meaning 'a plain', or flat, featureless and completely uninteresting.

Gordon Brown - a nickname for one's hair or complexion or dress said to resemble that colour and conveying an idea of something rather drab.

The current incumbent is David Cameron - a name from Gaelic for 'crooked nose' and surely a bad idea for anyone to ever be linked, however tenuously, to dishonesty.

So to answer the original question the answer must be a very definite "NO!" With one or two exceptions virtually no name could ever be said to carry any promise of a good leader. Indeed the best surname, that of John Major, simply did not fit the man or his two terms in office at all. Perhaps closing our eyes and stabbing a pin in the ballot paper is still the best option.

The Dark Ages

I was recently asked why does my writing most often centre on Saxon England? Of course many of my books have been on the origins of place names and as the vast majority of English place names originate from this period writing on the Saxon era was inevitable. Yet those books were written because of my interest in etymology (specifically toponymy, the study of place names) and not because of my interest in Saxon England.

Considering my writing covers English history, I rarely more than touch on the Roman occupation or the rule of the House of Normandy. However the intervening six and a half centuries, the Romans left in 410 AD and the Normans arrived in 1066, are still referred to as the Dark Ages. Perhaps it was because history just ignored the Saxon era when I was at school, leaping from Romans to Normans with hardly a pause. This may also be the reason I have no interest in these important episodes in British history, having been force fed a diet of road-building Romans and Norman knights.

Said Dark Ages were not only when most English place names were coined. This was also the time when the basis for the democratic system of government were laid down, a system copied throughout the world. Said Saxons brought with them their language, Old English. This evolved to Middle English and the modern version, spoken in 112 countries (double the number of any other language), and spoken as a second language by at least 500 million. While the craftsmanship shown by the discovery of the Staffordshire Hoard shows these ages were anything but dark.

The Saxons also split the land into the counties which remained largely unchanged until 1974. These traditional boundaries were taken into consideration when my published books on place names covered Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Rutland, Nottinghamshire, Shropshire, Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Hampshire, South Devon, Somerset, Dorset, Herefordshire, West Sussex, East Sussex, and Gloucestershire. I am very much looking forward to the publication of the volume on Cambridgeshire later this year.

The Battlefields Trail

Trying out and reviewing walks for various publications and societies this year means I have covered almost seven hundred miles since the spring. Of course I prefer a circular route for walking back along the same path, albeit offering a different viewpoint, is a little tedious - as I found when having to return to the car when researching Ley Lines Across the Midlands and later The Salt Routes. Yet discovering the leaflet advertising the Battlefields Trail I was instantly attracted.

Here three of the most significant battles on English soil were linked by a twenty-mile route through the south Midlands. Each site is clearly marked and information boards provide details of the combatants and how events unfolded. The trail starts in Chipping Warden and the route is stated clearly in the dowloadable leaflet known as the Battlefields Trail, hence here we just touch upon the history.

On July 26th 1469 the Wars of the Roses moved to Edgecote Moor. Here Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick led the Lancastrians against a Yorkist army.

A quarter of a century earlier at Cropredy Bridge another engagement took place in the small village of Cropredy Bridge. This place features as a point on one of the routes in my book Ley Lines Across the Midlands.
Just to the northwest of the delightful River Cherwell, Cropredy Bridge was named as an ancient river crossing, a ford across the shallowest part of the river. Indeed this point is also where two leys cross, the other known as the Waterstone ley. Despite the name of the village, as far as we can tell the first bridge was not constructed here until 1312.
The most famous moment in the history of Cropredy Bridge happened on 29th June 1644. The Parliamentarians were under the command of Sir William Waller, whose other claim to fame is as the man who proposed the formation of the New Model Army where professional soldiers fought under trained officers. Prior to this the troops were composed of any able fighting men, led by aristocrats whose only qualification to lead a war was through their bloodline. Opposing Waller were the Royalist forces, under the command of King Charles himself.
Here reports are conflicting. Some speak of a fierce battle, while others maintain it was only a minor skirmish. However both agree that the Royalists were victorious and marked a milestone in English history for this was the final battle won on home soil under the command of the reigning monarch. These differing accounts come about because they were written by different sides. The ferocity of the battle is exaggerated by the Parliamentarians, defeated they wished to tell of how bravely they fought. However their opponents describe a virtual walk over where hardly a shot was fired in anger.
So which is correct? The answer is found in the addendum to the Royalist record. It speaks of their disappointment at how their victory realised so very little, for their prisoners were not the cream of the fighting force and the captured equipment well-nigh worthless.

The earliest of the three barttles was fought at Edgehill on 23rd October 1642, indeed it was the first serious confrontation of the Civil War. The encounter is well covered by the Battlefields Trust leaflet. Again this battle features in the pages of one of my books, this time Paranormal Cotswolds where the story is told as follows:
At the northern edge of Cotswolds is Kineton and a famous moment in time. On the 23rd of October in the year of 1642, one of the greatest battles in English history was fought here, the first major engagement of the English Civil War.
Had there been a decisive victory for either side the conflict further bloodshed may have been avoided and thereafter resolved over the negotiating table. That the battle of almost 30,000 men resulted in 500 dead and 1,500 wounded from each side of the equally matched forces probably accounts for it seemingly continuing long after the mortal combatants had left the arena.
Early in 1643 a report was published by a London printer, sharing the tale of Christmas 1642 in Kineton. A group of shepherds, journeymen and a number of locals were abroad walking the lanes in the first hour after midnight, the first hour of the last Sunday in Advent. Suddenly they were aware of the sound of distant drums, the groans of dying men and the sounds of battle. They watched transfixed as the battle was renacted against the backdrop of the dark winter skies overhead. not daring to move should they be mistakenly be attacked amidst the carnage all around them.
For three hours they watched the slaughter until they considered it over and safe to move. They ran to Kineton's JP and minister, Mr Wood and Mr Marshall respectively, and told them of the horrors they had just witnessed. The skeptical well-educated gents returned to the scene 24 hours later and stood open-mouthed as they witnessed the battle re-enacted once more.
Rumours spread and reached the ears of the king himself, who had been present at the battle. He sent six men, a colonel, two captains and three men of high birth to investigate and, when Saturday night came around once more, the battle was again witnessed in the skies. They watched as men they had fought with, died once more slain by a sword in the hands of an opponent.
Twice more the ghostly battle has been reported. In the first days of 1643, and again around the early Victorian era when a group of newspaper reporters were on hand. Since that time only sounds of the battle have been heard, although there have been reports of Charles I's nephew and right-hand man at the battle, Prince Rupert of the Rhine, being seen astride his white charger directing the Royalist Army.

The leaflet states this can be travelled in three stages, although the twenty miles is manageable by experienced walkers in a single day (assuming the weather is kind and there are sufficient hours of daylight).