Time

A few will be aware I have been known to speak on various subjects over the years. Fundamentally these all revolve around my favourite subject of etymology. Have always enjoyed bringing this fascinating subject to others. It’s not for me to say whether the audiences have, although many have asked me to return.

Thought it might be worthwhile sharing a snippet or two from these etymological presentations, continuing with Time. It is found woven into our language and yet why do we use multiples of twelve for various time periods? Why have we not produced a metric clock? Learn the fascinating answers to these and other questions and discover why punctuality and the humble timepieces of yesterday and today have created more than a few funny stories. There is a PowerPoint presentation to accompany this talk if required.

Physicists will tell you time is relative – which basically means time is irrelevant other than to the immediate area. To see this we need to look at time on a universal scale. We hear of how this star and those galaxies are so many light years away, a light year is how far light travels in a year (fascinating, I hear you say.

But think of it. We see the Sun every day (well most days) but it is so far away we actually see it as it was 8 minutes ago, the nearest star is Proxima Centauri seen as it was four years ago (note they see us in 2022 and are thus still have no notion of Donald Trump’s second term). If either star vanished it would take 8 minutes (or four years depending on one’s relative position) for the lights to go out. Hence time is relative to the location of the individual.

And for the etymologist I must mention minute – and also minute (ie very small). These may be pronounced differently but the origins and indeed meanings are identical. A minute (sixty seconds) is a minute (small) part of an hour and comes from the Latin prima minuta ‘the first small part’

If you think you know someone who would like to hear me speak on this subject, drop me a line.

Homonyms, Etymologically Speaking: W

Many words have two meanings, sometimes more, which are often very different. Such words have identical spelling and pronunciation, they are known as homonyms. Here I continue an A to Z list of such words and look at how that word came to have two different meanings.

W is for watch, be it the timepiece or simply to observe. The latter is seen in Old English waecce 'state of being awake'; from Proto-Germanic wakjan and Proto-Indo-European weg 'be strong, lively'. Hence watchfulness and awake are ostensibly the same thing.

The timepiece is seen from 1580, and was a device to waken sleepers who would then be 'on watch' in the next crew rotation.

Synonym Etymologies N

Continuing the look at synonyms through the eyes of the etymologist, this time it is the letter N and new. As a simple and monosyllabic word, 'new' has hardly changed since Proto-Indo-European newo and with the same meaning. That we find other Germanic languages with very similar words: Old Saxon niwi, Old Frisian nie, Middle Dutch niuwe, Old High German niiwl and Danish (and Swedish) ny is telling, as are the non-Germanic languages with similar words, such as: Sanskrit navah, Persian nau, Hittite newash, Greek neos, Lithuanian naujas, Old Church Slavonic novu, Russian novyi, Latin novus, Old Irish nue, and Welsh newydd. The point is, with it being common to so many languages, it can not have ever meant anything else and must be ancient in the extreme. For the same reason that the word is so ancient, synonyms of 'new' are rarely needed. Indeed many of the following are only synonyms due to modern usage.

Fresh has, for most of its history, simply been used to refer to food, albeit not as we would think today but in the sense of 'not salted' - salting being the method of preservation for much of human history. Not until the 14th century did it come into use as a synonym for 'new' and it's roots are unclear, even though it is common to most Latin and Germanic languages.

Novel is used in this sense, at least since the 15th century, at least a century before it was used as a noun. Interestingly, the word 'novel' is from 'novella', itself a Latin term meaning 'new things'.

Original is clearly from 'origin', and while it seems odd to be talking of the origins of the word 'origin', he goes. This is from Latin originem. 'a rise, commencement, source, descent', and can betraced to the Proto-Indo-European heri 'to rise'.

Contemporary is a complex word, which is a good indication it is comparatively modern. Thus we can get rid oc the first syllable, leaving the root 'temporal', itself from Proto-Indo-European temp-os 'stretched' and ten 'to stretch', both used in the sense of 'time'.

Upgraded comes from 'up' added to 'grade', itself a word which has meant 'to step, walk' for much of its existence and found in Latin gradus and Proto-Indo-European ghredh.

Recent comes from the Latin recentem meaning 'fresh, young' as much as 'new'. It can also be seen in Sanskrit kanina 'young'. Old Irish cetu 'first', and Breton kent 'earlier'.

Current in the 'contemporary' sense is unknown prior to around 1600. It came from the noun, describing movement and, as an adjective, is used in the sense of 'keeping up with the times'. The noun comes from Proto-Indo-European kers 'to run'.

Latest, the superlative of 'late', is first seen in 1520 and used to mean 'the last in order'. The word 'late' has an odd history, for the Old English laet meant 'slow, sluggish, lax', Old Norse latr 'lazy', Gothic lats 'weary', and all from Proto-Indo-European le 'to let go'.

Mint - and I could not resist including a little modern slang. Little surprise to find it came to be used in this sense from the idea of a freshly-minted coin. The place where a coin is produced, the 'mint', is derived from the same source as the word 'money' - Latin moneta, first seen in English in mynet, the Old English word meaning 'coin, money'.

Imperialism

Nothing political here, I am talking about metrication. Those of you of a certain age will recall the days before metres and litres when measurements may have been a little more complicated but were certainly more fun.

Being of a certain age I recall the initial confusion from February 1971, when the pound sterling ceased being divided into 240 pennies but now only had a hundred. I've often thought it would be fun to change these values annually, where the pound is divided into smaller denominations. Perhaps reintroduce the shilling but this time there will be 17 shillings to the pound and 31 pennies in a shilling. Prime numbers are far more interesting.

If this seems rather odd, cast your mind back to the days when our exercise books had a series of tables on the reverse telling us how many pecks were in a bushel and other imperial measurements the younger generations may never have heard of. Each of these seeming oddities has a beginning and therefore a meaning. There are so many it is impossible to work all of them but here are a selection and taken in alphabetical order.

Acre is probably one of the better known imperial measurements. It is commom to many languages and originates in the Proto-Indo-European root agro which simply meant 'field' and not used as a measurement in the modern sense until the 13th century.

Bar, as a unit of pressure, comes from the Greek baros 'heavy' and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European gwere 'weight'.

Bushel, a measure of volume for dry goods, came to English from Old French. Of much more interest is where the French got the term, for it is derived from Gaulish bosta 'palm of the hand', a term still seen in the Irish bass and Breton boz 'hollow of the hand'.

Chain is most often associated with the length of a cricket pitch - 22 yards - and was named because it was measured by using an actual chain. Yet it began with surveying land, the length conveniently being one-tenth of a furlong and any field measuring one furlong in length (220 yards) and a chain in breadth (22 yards) has an area of 4,840 square yards or one acre. It is also still used in identifying any given point on a length of railway track, it seen expressed in miles and chains, and also in distances quoted in horse racing.

Dram comes from the Greek drakhma 'measure of weight' and originally simply meant 'handful'.

Foot holds no surprises, it has always been said to be the length of a man's foot - meaning the measurement varied with the size of the person's feet. As a body part the word dates from Proto-Indo-European (and probably earlier) when ped meant 'foot'.

Furlong is derived from the Germanic furh lang 'the long furrow', and clearly originated through ploughing. Although the mile is the basic measurement of distance today, until Elizabethan times the furlong was the standard and so much so the mile was redefined to make it equal to eight furlongs.

Gallon comes from galleta meaning 'bucket, pail' but also used to refer to 'a measure of wine'.

Grain is clearly related to the same word being used to describe the seed of cereals, and that is exactly what the Proto-Indo-European gre no meant.

Hour predates the clock and can be traced to Proto-Indo-European yor-a meaning 'year' and 'season' and understood as 'point of time'.

Inch is derived from the Latin unus 'one', used in the sense 'a small amount' before becoming a unit of length.

Mile comes from the Latin for 'one thousand' and refers to the number of paces. Now although the mile was rather shorter than the modern 1,760 yards (see furlong), it would still seem a good stride to walk 1,600 yards in a thousand paces. That does not mean the Romans were giants or had impressive inside leg measurements, it is simply the Roman 'pace' would be seen as two paces by us.

Minute has two pronunciations - as a sixtieth of an hour and to refer to something small. Originally the former meaning was the only one used and this became the name of the part of the hour, ie a small or minute part of the hour (see second).

Month takes its name from the moon.

Ounce, as with 'inch' can be traced to Latin unus 'one'. What is not well known is the 'ounce' has not only been a measurement of weight but also of time (about 7.1/2 seconds) and length (3 inches).

Peck is another used to refer to volume of dry goods, particularly associated with oats. It is thought to be a variation on 'pick' and used in the sense of 'allowance'.

Perch was a linear measurement of 5.1/2 yards and marked out using such a stick or pole, the reason why it takes the name - this is the French version, also seen in the Old English 'rod' and 'pole' and even 'yard'.

Pint has the same origin as 'paint', for early vessels marked the liquid volume equal to a pint with a painted line.

Quart, or two pints, is also a quater of a gallon and the latter is where the name originates.

Second, as in a sixtieth of a minute, was originally secunda minuta and, as seen in 'minute' above, this was also a 'small part' of an hour but the 'second small part'. Thus as the minute was originally as in 'diminuntive' and the first part of an hour, this measure of time was spoken of as 'the one after the first'.

Ton shares an origin with 'tun', a large cask of wine or beer - most often seen today in the many pubs known as the Three Tuns (symbolising the guilds of brewers and vintners). Thus the weight 'ton' began as a volume 'tun'.

Week is thought to be related to the Old Norse vika, which had the original meaning of 'a turning'. Thus as 'month' is from 'moon', perhaps the four distinct phases of the moon are referred to as 'changes' or 'weeks'.

Year is so old it is impossible to know for certain, the annual cycle clearly not only known to the ancients but what they lived their entire lives by. With similar forms common to many early languages, the root ei with a sense of 'that which makes (grows, produces)' seems likely.

Geological Ages

A new year and, unlike the Chinese calendar, it doesn't have a name but a number. Remember the good old days before humanity took over the planet when great beasts roamed the land or earlier still when no life-form on the planet existed unless it was single celled? No? In those days at least they had the good sense to give the eons names instead of numbers.

Precambrian is, well, as the name suggests tha which came before the Cambrian. Not overly imaginative you would think but it does cover four billion years from the start of the planet up to 541 million years ago. Credit should also be given to correctly forecasting the name given to the following eon, the Cambrian.

Cambrian was coined by Adam Sedgwick, who named the period of 541 to 485 million years ago after the Latinised form of Cymru, the Welsh name for Wales as this is where he felt the rocks from this time were best exposed. The Welsh Cymry, the word for the people of Cymru, means 'fellow countrymen', rather different from the Saxon wahl from which comes the name of Wales which meant 'foreigner', although this could hardly be considered xenophobic as all the Saxons were saying was they were not Saxon.

Ordovician is named after the Celtic Ordovices, as chosen by Charles Lapworth in 1879, to describe the period from 485 to 443 million years ago. The Ordovices may have farmed the land and kept sheep but they were named for their word for 'hammer'.

Silurian period covers the period 443 to 419 million years ago and named by Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, a friend of Adam Sedgwick, who named it after another Celtic tribe, the Silures. This Welsh tribe's name has most often been described as 'unknown', although this has not stopped a great number of suggestions. One suggests the personal name Essyllt giving the region the name Essyllwg and the people the Essyllwr. Essyllt was a daughter of the king of Germany and one of three damsels of celestial beauty, who married Locrinus and their daughter, Hafren, gave a name to the river Severn in which she drowned along with her mother.

Devonian period of 419 to 358 million years ago takes its name from Devon, again because this was where rocks from the period were first studied. The county is also named from a tribe iof Britons, the Dumnonii, who took their name from the Celtic dubnos and speaks of them as 'dwellers of the deep valley'.

Carboniferous, the period from 358 to 298 million years ago, is named because these rocks are said to be 'coal-bearing', coming from the Latin carbo 'coal' and fero 'I carry'.

Permian, 298 to 252 million years ago, was named in 1841 by Sir Roderick Murchison as these rocks were associated with the region of Perm Krai in Russia. Perm comes either from Finnish or Vepsian Peramaa or Hungarian perem meaning 'far away land' or 'edge' respectively.

Triassic period lasted from 252 to 201 million years ago. Named in 1834 by Friedrich von Alberti after three rock layers known as trias.

Jurassic lasted from 201 to 145 million years ago and is named from the Jura mountains, again where these rocks were first studied. The name Jura is from juria, a Celtic term for 'forest'.

Cretaceous, 145 to 65 million years ago, is a period named by Belgian geologist Jean d'Halloy in 1822 for the chalk beds found around the Paris Basin. The Latin creta means 'chalk'.

Eocene, from 65 to 33 million years ago, is named from the Ancient Greek eos 'dawn' and refers to the new fauna which appeared after the mass extinction of 65 million years ago.

Oligocene, 33 to 23 million years ago, is another from Ancient Greek, this time where oligos 'few' and kainos 'new' refers to the scarcity of molluscs found with the rock strat from this period.

Miocene period, 23 to 5 million years ago, is another from Greek, where meion 'less' and kainos 'new' means literally 'less recent' because this period has fewer marine invertebrates than the following.

Pliocene, from 5 million to 2.5 million years ago, was named by Sir Charles Lyell and, once again, comes from the Greek. Here pleion 'more' and kainos 'new' was chosen to mean 'continuation of the recent', a reference to the fossil molluscs found within these rocks which are essentially the same as seen today.

Pleistocene, from 2.5 million to just 11,700 years ago, comes from the Greek pleistos 'mostly' and kainos 'new', and shows this is almost as recent as the ages get.

Holocene has only been around sinc 11,700 years ago and means 'entirely recent' from the Greek holos kainos.

These time spans are further divided into periods, epochs, and ages and all with much more imaginative names than simply 2017. Happy New Year.

Unlucky 13

With advent calendar doors opening daily to enjoy a chocolate for breakfast - in my formative years it was simply a picture - I overheard the question wondering why the clock has not been decilmalised. As someone who can remember pounds sterling changing overnight from 240 pennies to the pound down to 100 leading to utter bewilderment for many, a metric clock would prove quite entertaining for a decaday or two.

Any attempt to bring about any metric clock is doomed to failure whilst we are still marooned on Sol 3. Star Trek 's stardate, seemingly a futuristic dating system, is in reality quite arbitrary and created so the audience would find it difficult to understand exactly what date it equated to on the Julian Calendar and write it pointing out endless continuity errors or giving opinions on whether the toilet would be obsolete on the Enterprise (having never seen one I assume they simply beam waste products away, a much easier method) or innumerable other scenarios deemed impossible by that century or this.

Not that Earth time has prevented the creation of any number of metric systems, aside from the many created by fiction authors - Battlestar Galactica writers created the 'centon', equal to roughly one minute - while mathematicians and scientists have created the decasecond (which is 10 seconds), the hectosecond (two hectoseconds to boil an egg), the megasecond (around 11.1/2 days), the gigasecond (equating to more than 31 years and meaning few of us will ever see a lifetime of three gigaseconds), the myriasecond (just short of three hours), and the marvellously named hectocoulomb per milliampere, which may sound like an eternity but is actually only a little under 28 hours.

There have also been attempts to change days, weeks and months. Possibly best known is the French Revolutionary Calendar which relied more on the cycle of the Moon, thus giving thirteen months in a year. Thirteen is considered unlucky - Friday 13th is the unluckiest day of all but any month with such must also begin with Sunday 1st, seen as the luckiest day so one balances the other out - which may have been one factor in not adopting the French idea. Another would be how they reflect northern hemisphere seasons, although the main reason would be down solely to reluctance to change. Despite decimalisation in the United Kingdom happening more than 40 years ago, those who remember shillings, coloquially known as a 'bob', may still refer to good fractions of the pound as 'a few bob'.

The thirteen French months were coined quite recently, hence the origins are fairly self-explanatory but still worthwhile examining from an etymological point of view. However before we start, some mention should be made of the start of the year which begins on either 22nd, 23rd or 24th September. The Julian calendar began in March, taking the spring equinox as when the longer day than night sees the beginning of the growing season, while the Gregorian calendar looks more at the closest from the shortest hours of daylight, thereafter opting for the start of the following month around 10 days later. Note both are relevant only in the northern hemisphere, as we have already noted also applies to the French suggestion.

Vendemiaire is from the Occitan language, a Romance language named from the Occitan valley of Italy but not confined to that region, and translates as 'grape harvester'. It begins on either 22nd, 23rd or 24th September but the confusion does not stop there, for each month had thirty days, each of three decades (metric weeks) of ten days which saw the metric week of Primidi, Duodi, Tridi, Quartidi, Sextidi, Septidi, Octidi, Nonidi, Decadi or 'first, second, third', etc,. Further confusion comes from the thirty days each having a second name. The majority in Vendemiaire named after plants, with the 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. This results in Raisin 'grape' Safran 'saffron', Chataignes 'chestnut', Colchique 'autumn crocus', Cheval 'horse', Balsamine 'yellow balsam', Carottes 'carrots', Amarantine 'amaranth', Panais 'parsnip', Cuve 'tub', Pommes de terre 'potatoes', Immortelle 'strawflower', Potiron 'giant pumpkin', Reseda 'mignonette', Ane 'donkey', Belle de nuit 'marvel of Peru', Citrouille 'summer pumpkin', Sarrazin 'buckwheat', Tournesol 'sunflower', Pressoir 'wine-press', Chanvre 'hemp', Peches 'peaches', Navets 'turnip', Amarillis 'amaryllis', Boeuf 'cattle', Aubergine 'aubergine', Piment 'chile pepper', Tomate 'tomato', Orge 'barley', Tonneau 'barrel'.

Brumaire is from the French word for 'fog', as this month is the most likely to see fog. It begins on either 22nd, 23rd or 24th October. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Pomme 'apple', Celeri 'celery', Poire 'pear', Bettarave 'beetroot', Oye 'goose', Heliotrope 'European turnsole', Figue 'fig', Scorsonere 'black salsify', Alisier 'chequer tree', Charrue 'plough', Salsifis 'salsify', Macre 'water chestnut', Topinambour 'Jerusalem artichoke', Endive 'endive', Dindon 'turkey', Chervi 'skirret', Cresson 'watercress', Dentelaire 'leadwort', Grenade 'pomegranate', Herse 'harrow', Bacchante 'wild ginger', Azerole 'Crete hawthorn', Garence 'madder', Orange 'orange', Faisan 'pheasant', Pistache 'pistachio', Macjonc 'sweetpea', Coing 'quince', Cormier 'service tree', Rouleau 'roller'.

Frimaire is the French word for 'frost'. It begins on either 21st, 22nd or 23rd November. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Raiponce 'rampion', Terneps 'turnips', Chicoree 'chicory', Nefle 'medlar', Cochon 'pig', Mache 'corn salad', Cho-fleur 'cauliflower', Miel 'honey', Genievre 'juniper', Pioche 'pick', Cire 'wax', Raifort 'horseradish', Cedre 'cedar', Sapin 'fir', Chevreuil 'roe', Ajonc 'gorse', Cypres 'cypress', :ierre 'ivy', Sabine 'savin juniper', Hoyau 'axe', Erable sucre 'silver maple', Bruyere 'heather', Roseau 'reed', Oseille 'sorrel', Grillon 'cricket', Pignon 'pinenut', Liege 'cork oak', Truffe 'truffle', Olive 'olive', Pelle 'shovel'.

Novose is from the Latin for 'snow'. It begins on the 21st, 22nd or 23rd of December. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days and is different in using minerals and animal substances instead of plants, again with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Tourbe 'peat', Houille 'coal', Bitume 'asphalt', Soufre 'sulphur', Chien 'dog', Lave 'lava', Terre vegetale 'humus', Fumier 'manure', Salpetre 'nitrate', Fleau 'flail', Granit 'granite', Argile 'clay', Ardoise 'slate', Gres 'sandstone', Lapin 'rabbit', Silex 'flint', Marne 'marl', Pierre a chaux 'limestone', Marbre 'marble', Van 'winnowing basket', Pierre a platre 'gypsum', Sel 'salt', Fer 'iron', Culvre 'copper', Chat 'cat', Etain 'tin', Plomb 'lead', Zinc 'zinc', Mercure 'mercury', Crible 'sieve'.

Pluviose is from the Latin for 'rainy'. It begins on 20th, 21st or 22nd of January. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Laureole 'spurge laurel', Mousse 'moss', Fragon 'buther's broom', Perce Neige 'snowdrop', Taureau 'bull', Laurier Thym 'bay thyme', Amadouvier 'tinder fungus', Mezereon 'February daphne' (ironically in January), Peuplier 'poplar', Coignee 'hatchet', Ellebore 'hellebore', Broccoli 'broccoli', Laurier 'laurel', Avelinier 'cobnut', Buis 'boxwood', Lichen 'Iceland moss', If 'yew', Pulmonaire 'lungwort', Sepette 'pruning knife', Thlaspi 'pennycross', Thimele 'rose daphne', Chiendent 'couchgrass', Trainasse 'knotweed', Lievre 'hare', Guedre 'dyer's woad', Voisetier 'hazelnut', Cyclamen 'sowbread', Chelidoine 'celandine', Traineau 'sleigh'.

Ventose is from the Latin for 'windy'. It begins on 19th, 20th or 21st of February. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Tussilage 'coltsfoot', Cornouiller 'dogwood', Viollier 'stock', Troene 'privet', Bouc 'billy goat', Asaret 'wild ginger', Alaterne 'evergreen buckthorne', Violette 'violet', Marceau 'willow', Beche 'spade', Narcisse 'narcissus', Orme 'elm', Fumeterre 'fumitory', Velar 'hedge mustard', Chevre 'goat', Epinard 'spinach', Doronic 'leopard's bane', Mouron 'pimpernel', Cerfeuil 'chervil', Cordeau 'twine', Mandragore 'mandrake', Percil 'parsley', Cochleria 'scurvygrass', Paquerette 'daisy', Thon 'tuna', Pissenlit 'dandelion', Sylvie 'anemone', Capillaire 'maidenhead fern', Frene 'ash tree', Plantoir 'dibble'.

Germinal is from the Latin for 'germination', most often simply said to be 'seed'. It begins on either the 20th or 21st of March. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Primevere 'primrose', Platane 'plane tree', Asperge 'asparagus', Tulipe 'tulip', Poule 'hen', Blette 'beetroot', Bouleau 'birch', Jonquille 'jonquil', Aulne 'alder', Couvoir 'hatchery', Pervenche 'periwinkle', Charme 'hornbeam', Morille 'round morel', Hetre 'beech', Abeille 'bee', Laitue 'lettuce', Meleze 'larch', Cigue 'hemlock', Radis 'radish', Ruche 'beehive', Gainier 'Judas tree', Romaine 'cos lettuce', Maronnier 'horse chestnut', Roquette 'rocket', Pigeon 'pigeon', Anemone / Lilas 'anemone or lilac', Pensee 'pansy', Myrtil 'blueberry', Greffoir 'graft knife'.

Floreal comes from the Latin for 'flower'. It begins in either 20th or 21st of April. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Rose 'rose', Chene 'oak', Fougere 'fern', Aubepine 'hawthorn', Rossignol 'nightingale', Ancolie 'columbine', Muguet 'lily of the valley', Champignon 'mushroom', Hyacinthe 'hyacinth', Rateau 'rake', Rhubarbe 'rhubarb', Sain-foin 'sainfoin', Baton d'or 'wallflower', Chamerisier 'dwarf honeysuckle', Ver-a-sole 'silkworm', Consoude 'comfrey', Pimprenelle 'burnet', Corbeil d'or 'alison', Arroche 'orache', Sarcloir 'hoe', Statice 'sea lavender', Fritillaire 'fritillary', Bourrache 'borage', Valeriane 'valerian', Carpe 'carp', Fusian 'spindle tree', Civette 'chive', Buglose 'bugloss', Seneve 'charlock', Houlette 'shepherd's staff.

Prairal is from the French word for 'meadow'. It begins on either 20th or 21st of May. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Luserne 'lucerne', Hemerocalle 'daylily', Trefle 'clover', Angelique 'angelica', Canard 'duck', Melisse 'melissa', Fromental 'oat grass', Martagon 'martagon lily', Serpolet 'wild thyme', Faulx 'scythe', Fraise 'strawberry', Betoine 'betony', Pois 'pea', Acacia 'acacia', Caille 'quail', Oeillet 'pink', Sureau 'elder', Pavot 'poppy', Tilleul 'lime tree', Fourche 'pitchfork', Barbeau 'cornflower', Camomille 'chamomile', Chevrefeuille 'honeysuckle', Caille lait 'bedstraw', Tranche 'tench', Jasmin 'jasmine', Verveine 'vervain', Thym 'thyme', Pivoine 'peony', Chariot 'cart.

Messidore is from Latin for 'harvest'. It begins on either 19th or 20th of June. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Seigle 'rye', Avoine 'oats', Oignon 'onion', Veronique 'speedwell', Mulet 'mule', Romarin 'rosemary', Concombre 'cucumber', Echalotte 'shallot', Absynthe 'wormwood', Faucille 'sickle', Coriandre 'coriander', Artichaut 'artichoke', Giroflee 'clove', Lavande 'lavender', Chamois 'chamois', Tabac 'tobacco', Groseille 'currant', Cesse 'vetchling', Cerise 'cherry', Parc 'fold', Menthe 'mint', Cumin 'caraway', Haricot 'bean', Orcanete 'alkanet', Pintade 'guinea fowl', Sauge 'sage', Ail 'garlic', Vesce 'vetch', Ble 'wheat', Chalemie 'shawm.

Thermidor is derived from the French 'heat', although some printed calendars give this as Fervidor or 'hot'. It begins on either 19th or 20th July. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Epeautre 'spelt', Bouillon blanc 'mullein', Melon 'melon', Ivraie 'ryegrass', Belier 'ram', Prele 'horsetail', Armoise 'mugwort', Carthame 'safflower', Mure 'mulberry', Arrosoir 'watering can', Panic 'eryngo', Salicor 'glasswort', Abricot 'apricot', Basilic 'basil', Brebis 'ewe', Guimauve 'marsh mallow', Lin 'flax', Amande 'almond', Genthiane 'gentian', Ecluse 'lock', Carline 'silver thistle', Caprier 'caper', Lentille 'lentil', Aunee 'elecampane', Loutre 'otter', Myrthe 'myrtle', Colza 'rapeseed', Lupin 'lupin', Coton 'cotton', Moulin 'mill'.

Fructidor comes from the Latin for 'fruit'. It begins on either August 18th or 19th. While the metric weeks retain the ten-day names, different names are given for each of the thirty days but retain the idea of plants, with the addition of 5th (Quintidi) taking the name of a domesticated animal and the 10th (Decadi) the name of an agricultural tool. Prune 'plum', Millet 'millet', Licoperde 'puffball', Escourgeon 'barleygrass', Saumon 'salmon', Tubereuse 'tuberose', Sucrion 'barleygrass', Apocyn 'dogbane', Reglisse 'licquorice', Echelle 'ladder', Pasteque 'watermelon', Fenouil 'fennel', Epine vinette 'barberry', Noix 'walnut', Truite 'trout', Citron 'lemon', Cardiere 'teasel', Nerprun 'buckthorn', Tagette 'African marigold', Hotte 'basket', Eglantier 'dog rose', Noisette 'hazelnut', Houblon 'hops', Sorgho 'soghum', Ecrevisse 'bitterorange', Verge d'or 'golden rod', Mais 'corn', Marron 'horse chestnut', Panier 'basket'.

Even for the French this calendar proved but unappealing and having implemented it in 1793 then abandoned the system just 12 years later. A short revival in 1871 similarly saw little support, actually the Paris Commune's use lasted just 12 days or a whole megasecond.

As this is being posted on December 11th 2016, as far as I can tell this, had the French proved popular, would mean today is: silver maple, first of the third decade of frost month.

Note the piece uses English spellings as it is written in English and speaking of which, one 19th-century British wit made a little fun of the new months by renaming them "Wheezy, Sneezy, Freezy, Slippy, Drippy, Nippy, Showery, Flowery, Bowery, Hoppy, Croppy, and Poppy.

2013

As this will be my last post of the year and the media is full of what has happened in the last twelve months, I thought I would offer some thoughts of my own. Over the last twelve months or so, some five books in the Through Time series with my name on have been released. As the name suggests these compare modern images with similar views from yesteryear and below I offer a taster from these books, where the older view in each case date from around a century ago.

In these images from Tamworth Through Time we see identical views looking up the hill in my home town of Tamworth, with Tamworth Castle on the right. The road is known as Holloway because it was quite literally hollowed out by the constant passage of wheels, hooves and feet as they crossed the River Tame at what was for centuries the only bridge for miles over this river.



A view of Dr Samuel Johnson’s Birthplace from Lichfield Through Time. Born here in September 1709, he was a sickly baby and his aunt is held to have announced on seeing him for the first time how she ‘would not have picked up such a poor creature in the street’.



From Stafford Through Time come these views of Stafford Common Station. The old image is at it appeared in August 1968, with the modern view from below the bridge featured in the earlier picture.



Two very different scenes from Solihulll Through Time but taken from the same position. What is now Riverdale Drive opposite Malvern Park was previously the former Solihull Brickworks. However there is one remaining landmark, out of shot to the left in both these images, of a Post Office pillar box which is still in daily use.



When photographing English Riviera Through Time, my favourite part of the world, I was struck by something clearly evidenced by these images. First we see the village of Galmpton around 1907, the home of Agatha Christie is situated behind the camera. Note the sapling in the old image is the same tree as that dominating the modern view. This is also true of the background which is devoid of trees in the old image but, although largely hidden in the modern view, litter the scene today.



The same is true in this view of Anstey’s Cove where vegetation is the dominant feature in the twenty-first century.



As usual I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you. Meanwhile I shall take this opportunity to say to one and all a very Happy New Year and wish for you everything you would wish for yourselves.

Happy New Year. Is it really 2012?

1st January and it is 2012 (MMXII), but only on the Gregorian calendar. While I was aware of the existence of others, until I examined the subject in more detail I had no idea just how many different calendars there are. The following are a selection and include some explanation as to who, where and why.

Ab urbe condita and the year is 2765, not exactly the most widely used calendar and important only to historians with an interest in Rome for the name is Latin for 'from the founding of the city (of Rome)'.

Armenian calendar gives this as 1461, a solar calendar based on 365 days in a year. Twelve months of 30 days each with another five days which belong to no month. Year 1 began on 11th July AD552 in the Julian Calendar.

Assyrian calendar it is now 6762 as the calendar began in the equivalent of 4750BC, the year the first temple was established as Ashur.

Bahai calendar says 168, as the Bahai Era began on 21st March 1844.

Bengali calendar and the year is 1419, the Bengali era beginning with the rule of King Shoshangko.

Berber calendar this year is 2962, adjusted in the 1960s so year 1 was set to 950 BC, the approximate date of the first Libyan pharoah in Egypt.

British regnal year and today 60 Eliz 2, it will become 61 on February 6th, the day after the death of George VI and Queen Elizabeth II's accession to the throne.

Buddhist calendar it is now 2556, dating from when the Buddha attained nirvana.

Burmese calendar the year is 1374 as it began 638 years after the Christian calendar.

Byzantine calendar this year is now 7520, the date of creation given as September 1st 5509 BC.

Chinese calendar says 4648, although there is no agreement as to when the calendar began it is traditionally held to have been invented by Emperor Huang-di in the 61st year of his reign.

Coptic calendar lists this as 1728, based on a reform of the ancient Egyptian calendar.

Ethiopian calendar makes this 2004, a calendar based on the Annunciation or Incarnation of Jesus as given by the Julian Calndar, which equates to 25th March 9AD

Hebrew calendar comes out as 5772, no surprisingly the number of years considered to have passed since the beginning of the world.

Hindu calendar of Bikram Samwat is 2068, as established by the Indian emperor Vikramaditya of Ujjain follwing his victory over the Sakas in 56 BC.

Hindu calendar of Shaka Samwat gives this as 1934, where the year was set to zero (not one) in the year 78 of the Saka year. However this was not decided until as recently as March 22nd 1957.

Hindu calendar of Kali Yuga reads 5113, literally 'the age of the female demon Kali' or perhaps 'the age of vice'. Hence is said to be the age of the world, which began on 23rd January 3102BC

Holocene calendar reads 12012, clearly exactly 10,000 years before the Gregorian calendar and given as the beginning of the Holocene epoch, the Neolithic revolution, and thus seen as the Human Era.

Iranian calendar reads 1390, roughly corresponding to the calendar of Zoroastrian cosmology with a starting point in the period of the Achaemenid Empire.

Islamic calendar states 1433, counting beginning with the emigration of the prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina.

Japanese calendar reads 24, or correctly Heisei 24 the reign of the current empreror. However the Japanese also use the Imperial Year system, which would then make this the first day of 2772, while officially using the Gregorian calendar.

Korean calendar is seen as 4345, counted from the foundation of Gojoseon in 2333 BC, although officially the Gregorian Calendar has been used for some time.

Minguo calendar says this is ROC 101, the 101st yeat of the Republic of China (Minguo meaning literally 'the Country of the People'.

Thai solar calendar reads 2555, today counted in the Buddhist era as 543 years greater than the Christian Era.

Unix time states 1325376000, my personal favourite and one I use whenever I receive a phone call from some organisation who demand my date of birth when trying to 'go through security'. There are no years, months, days, hours or minutes in Unix time, only seconds. It began at midnight on Thursday 1st January 1970 GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), today referred to as UTC (Coordinated Universal Time).