Origins of Place Names: Belgian Cities

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time I cast my net a little wider. As English place names share some links to other tongues it would be interesting to see if any of the elements contributing to our place names could be found elsewhere. This time we continue the tour of Western Europe and a look at the largest Belgian cities.

Antwerp is Belgium's most populous settlement, the origin of the name being the subject of some debate. Currently the most common explanation is the Germanic an der werp or 'by the wharf', this port being on the River Scheldt. However this would mean the place would have been named after the wharf had been put to use and thus there would have been an earlier name for the place and no record has survived. Yet there is an alternative origin of Germanic anda werpum meaning 'at the alluvium' (silt deposited by annual flooding) and, in my experience, this makes a much more likely origin for a place name of this age. What is certain is is nothing to do with the legendary explanation of the mythical giant Antigoon. He demanded a toll from those wishing to cross the river, those refusing to pay had a hand severed and tossed into the river. Eventually he was beaten by the hero Brabo, who cut off Antigoon's hand and tossed that into the river. Hence the name is said to come from Dutch hand werpen and related to Old English hand wearpan not 'weapon' but meaning 'to throw'.

Ghent was once known as Ganda, this likely shows these names came from a Celtic ganda meaning 'confluence' and this is where the Scheldt joins the Lys. The idea this comes from a the deity Guntia has virtually no evidence to support it, although it cannot be written off entirely.

Charleroi was only officially founded in 1666, as fort built by the Spanish governor of the Netherlands and named Charles-Roy to honour the Spanish king Charles II.

Liege is either from a Germanic word liudiz meaning 'people' and seen as '(the place) of the people'. The same word can be seen throughout the Germanic tongues of Europe: Dutch luiden, German Leute, Old English leod, and Icelandic lythur. The Old English version also explains the record from 770 as Leodicum, which virtually rules out the explanation this is the personal name Leudi.

Brussels was originally situated on dry land in the marshes of the River Senne. Then it was known as Bruoc-sella 'the settlement in the marshes'.

Bruges is not difficult to see as coming from the Dutch brug meaning 'bridge', the original bridge being over the Rei and constructed by the Romans. Later the term has been seen as plural for this is indeed a town of many bridges and, as a place, one of my personal favourites.

Mons is not difficult to see as related to the French for 'mountain' and in documents dating from before the seventh century this place is recorded as Montes. To the Romans it was Castrilocus, from the castrum or 'military encampment' they built here.

Molenbeek is from two Dutch words, molen beek speaking of 'the mill brook'. Originally this was the name of the brook, by 985 the name of the village, and today the name of one of the nineteen municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region.

Hasselt is from Hasaluth meaning 'hazel wood', the earliest known record of this form of the name comes from a document dated 1165.

Ostend is from Dutch oost einde or 'the east end'. The modern location of Ostend is not the original but a planned 'New Ostend' behind dykes to protect the area, the unstable coastline of the North Sea a reminder this arm of the ocean is only 10,000 years old, not even yesterday in a geological sense. The original was on the 'east end' of the island of Testerep, now joined to the mainland.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Origins of Place Names: Portugal

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time I cast my net a little wider. As English place names share some links to other tongues I thought it would be interesting to see if any of the elements contributing to our place names could be found elsewhere. This time we continue the tour of Western Europe and a look at the largest Portuguese cities.

Lisbon was, according to legend, founded by the Greek hero Odysseus but this is certainly not the origin of the name. The Greeks knew the place as Olisippo, perhaps traceable to the Phoenician ippo meaning 'fence'. However most sources point to this as from the Phoenician alis ubbo, literally 'the joyful bay' but understood as a reference to a safe harbour.

Oporto is from the Portuguese o porto 'the port'. Note this is not the direct origin of the name of the country, Portugal came from the Roman name Portus cale or 'the warm harbour' (ie never freezes).

Braga was known as Bracara Augusta, the name of the Roman emperor following that of the Bracari people who lived here during the Iron Age.

Amadora was originally named Porcalhota, being the place of a woman named Porcalhota. In Italian Amadora means 'gift of love'.

Vila Nova de Gaia is 'the new place of Gaia', with the place name coming, from the Celtic peoples who inhabited the area previously, they referring to themselves as 'Gall', also seen in Gaul.

Queluz is disputed but most often said to come from the Arabic ca Llus and speaking of 'the valley where almonds grow'.

Funchal is a Portuguese city with a Portuguese name. This comes from funcho al and refers to 'the fennel plantation', the area being known for where the plant grew wild in profusion.

Coimbra was known as Conimbriga to the Romans, this unites an early Indo-European reference to a 'rocky height, an outcrop' with Celtic briga a defensive feature.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Origins of Place Names: Germany

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time I cast my net a little wider. As English place names share some links to other tongues it would be interesting to see if any of the elements contributing to our place names could be found elsewhere.Last time I looked at the origins of the names of the biggest cities in France and now move on to Germany.

Berlin has never been explained with any certainty which, as so often happens, has resulted in many suggestions. Such include the personal name Berla, 'lake', 'hill', 'dam', 'judgement place', 'customs point', 'sandy place' and others depending upon which Germanic, Slavonic or Celtic language is consulted. Popularly the name is said to come from the German word for 'bear', although there is no etymological evidence to support this.

Hamburg is either from the Germanic ham and burg to speak of 'the fortified place at the inlet' or perhaps this represents the Hammaburg or 'fortification in the wood' founded by Charlemagne in the ninth century.

Munich comes from Old High German munih meaning 'monk'. This is a reference to the Benedictine monastery previously found here.

Cologne was founded by the Romans in 38BC. The Latin name of Colonia Claudia Agrippina means 'the colony of Claudia Agrippina', this woman was the mother of the notorious Emperor Nero and wife of the Emperor Claudius, whom she murdered.

Frankfurt is first recorded as Frankonovurd in Old High German and in Latin as Vadum Francorum, both from a document dated 794. Standing on the River Main it was named to point out this was 'the ford used by the Franks'.

Stuttgart is seen in a document dated 1229 as Stutengarten, this describes 'the garden where mares are reared'. Compare this with the city's coats of arms through the ages, all of which depict horses. As English belongs to the Germanic group of languages it is worthwhile noting this name is from Old High German stute 'mare' and related to Old English stod 'stud' and Old High German garten, still easily seen as 'garden'.

Dusseldorf takes its suffix from German dorf 'village' following the name of Dussel, this the river on which stands. As with many river names the Dussel is simplistic in meaning, this comes from Celtic dur and means simply 'river'.

Dortmund is recorded as Throtmenni in 890, the name of the channel here and coming from the Old High German word for 'throat' and a description of the topographical feature. The modern spelling represents the change in pronunciation, thus the original meaning is the same today.

Essen was known as Astnida in 897, this literally being 'hills, smelting place' and derived from an earlier Indo-European 'to dry or burn'. The meaning is difficult to see but possibly describes a place cleared by burning.

Bremen is from Old High German brem describing its location at 'the marshy shore'. There is archaeological evidence of these marshlands being settled for more than 14,000 years. Note how brem can be seen to be related to modern English 'brim' with the same understanding.

Clearly I have used English spellings for these place names - makes sense as the post is written in English.

Origins of Place Names: France

Over the last few years I have sampled several of my books on the origins of place names, all of which refer to those found in England. On occasions I have also looked at the etymologies of the nations of the world and followed up with their respective capitals. This only gave a glimpse into the origins of non-English place names and, with many overseas names being found on England's welcoming signs as a result of town twinning, I thought it time to look at the origins of the place names of other nations.

I decided to start with France. This was an arbitrary decision not influenced by anything etymological (although I was thinking about croque-monsieur moments earlier).

Paris was known to the Romans as Lutetia Parisiorum or 'Lutetia of the Parisii'. Here the Latin lutum 'clay' or perhaps 'mud-like' precedes the name of the local tribe, the Parisii a Gaulish people is either from a Celtic par 'ship' and a reference to those living and working on the Seine or from a word meaning 'border town' where, once again, the Seine is influential, this time in marking the border.

Marseille is first seen as Massalia, a Latin reference to a town founded by the Phoenicians about a millennium earlier and named after the Massili tribe. The tribal name is of uncertain origin but is thought to be based on the mas- element which probably meant 'spring'.

Lyon was known as Lugdunum by the Romans, a name featuring the Gaulish suffix dun 'fortress'. The first element has three possible origins: lugus meaning 'little'; the Celtic pagan god Lug; or Celtic lucodunos 'bright mountain'.

Toulouse on the River Garonne is first recorded as Tolosa, then the home of the Tolosates. The name has never been adequately explained but may take the Celtic tul as its first element, this meaning 'mountain'.

Nice was founded and named as the Greek colony of Nikaea, itself named after goddess of victory Nike.

Nantes was named after the Gaulish tribe Namneti, although their name has never been explained.

Strasbourg is as close to an English place name as we are likely to find in France. This is derieved from a Frankish name Strateburgum, linked to strasse 'street' and burg here used in the sense of 'town' and thus speaking of 'the town by the road'. This important way took traffic from the River Rhine and across the Vosges.

Montpellier is recorded in a document dated AD 975 as Mons pestellarius, Latin for 'woad mountain'. Doubtless it was named such as the blue dye was produced here.

Bordeaux was known as Burdigala to the Romans, itself taken from the Gaulish tribal name Bituriges Vivisci. AUnfortunately the origins of the tribal name are unclear.

Lille has finally given us a place name in France named from the French language. Here this is from Old French l'isle meaning 'the island' and a reminder of the city being founded as a fortress on a virtual island in the marshland.

Next time I shall move east and examine some German place names.

Talking Buts, Butts and Buttes

When out and about giving talks, particularly those on the subject of place names, I often encounter a local name which will invariably lead to a minor disagreement between the speaker and the audience. Having regularly failed to convince many of the origin of this as a minor place name or, more often, a field name transferred to a street name when the area was developed, I thought an examination of the various buts, butts, and buttes might prove of interest.

As a place or field name it is often thought to be a reminder of where archers had honed their skills. Sunday morning church could be missed by men who were practicing with the bow and arrow. Locals enjoy such a story. It shows fellow villagers, possibly even ancestors, were patriotic and ready to answer the call to arms to fight for what was right. Sadly it is almost never right.

Here we shall look not only at why it is nothing to do with archery and at the correct derivation, but (pun intended) at all the other uses and spellings and respective origins thereof. Three spellings, those given in the title, and surprisingly more than twenty-five different uses of but, butt and butte.

1. But - as in ‘nevertheless’ comes from Germanic be’by’ and utana ‘outside’.

2. But – as in ‘on the contrary’ and sharing the etymology of 1.

3. But – when preceding the word ‘can’ and used to refer to an exception and sharing the etymology of 1.

4. But – used instead of the much lengthier ‘without the result that’ as in “It never rains but it pours” and sharing the etymology of 1.

5. But – as used when interrupting the speaker’s train of thought as in “There is no chance of rain ….. but is that a cloud I see?” and sharing the etymology of 1.

6. But – as in ‘however’ and used such as “Did not want to, but.” and sharing the etymology of 1.

7. But – as in ‘who not’ and used as “There is not a man but feels pity” and sharing the etymology of 1.

8. But – as in an objection (when it can also be used in the plural as in the phrase “But me no buts”) and sharing the etymology of 1.

9. But – as in ‘an outer room’, a new one on me, and apparently from the Scandinavian meaning “outside”. Most often this is used of a humble two-roomed cottage described as a ‘but and ben’. Again this clearly shares an etymology with 1.

10. Butt – as in ‘to push with the head’ comes from Proto-Germanic butan, itself from Proto-Indo-European bhau, and meaning ‘to strike’. This has also provided us with the verb ‘to batter’.

11. Butt – as in ‘abut’ and a reference to adjoining ends, particularly flat ends.

12. Butt – as when used with the word ‘against’, usually used in construction directions,

13. Butt – when used with ‘in’ meaning ‘to interrupt’ comes through Middle English and Norman French and ultimately from the Germanic group. It shares an etymology with 10.

14. Butt – when used with ‘out’, chiefly North American but (pun intended) becoming more commonplace in other English-speaking countries, meaning ‘desist’ and again shares an etymology with ‘abut’.

15. Butt – when followed by ‘of’ used to refer to an object, such as in ‘the butt of his jokes’ and from a theoretical Proto-Indo-European word reference meaning ‘aim’ but (pun intended) also used in the Germanic group to refer to a ‘stock, block’ as in the Old Scandinavian butr ‘a log of wood’.

16. Butt – a mound behind a target, used to support it and also to prevent the projectile from continuing through and well beyond same. This came to English from Old French but meaning ‘goal’.

17. Butt – as in ‘a shooting range’ but (pun intended) today always used in the plural. It shares an etymology with the previous ‘butt’ in from Old French but meaning ‘goal’.

18. Butt – again a shooting reference but (pun intended) here specifically to the low turf or stone wall at the stand of one shooting grouse.

19. Butt – as in butt-end and a reference to the thickest end of a tool or weapon. This is found in Old English as buttuc where it refers to ‘an end, a small piece of land’.

20. Butt – again sometimes said to be the butt-end and a reference to the stub of a cigarette or cigar. There is no known use in this sense prior to 1847.

21. Butt – as in ‘the remaining part’.

22. Butt – as in the rear end, originating in North America it is becoming more commonplace in other English-speaking countries. It is simply an abbreviated form of ‘buttocks’, itself clearly sharing an origin with 19.

23. Butt – also said to be the butt-end and a reference to the flat end meeting another flat surface, such as a couple of planks.

24. Butt – when used to refer to that part of the trunk of a tree just above the ground. This comes from the Dutch bot meaning ‘stumpy’.

25. Butt – meaning ‘a cask’, a container for ales and wines. This is derived from Old French bout and Latin buttis.

26. Butt – and the name of a flatfish derived from the Middle Low German, Old Swedish and Middle Dutch but. There is also the archaic Buttwoman, in English ‘a fish-wife’ and one who sells fish.

27. Butte – is used to refer to an isolated and steep-sided hill. This comes from French for ‘mound’ and quite easy to see its association with the defensive mound backing a target. Rarely used to mean ‘mound or knoll’ outside of North America by English-speakers, the first record of its use is by Messrs. Lewis and Clark.

So which of these is the origin of the English field name? Answer, none of them. The correct derivation is Old English butt which refers to the unploughed edge to a field or similar. This was not deliberate but a result of ploughing techniques in Saxon times. The power was provided by oxen who pulled the plough across the land. One man would guide the oxen in a straight line, a second held the handles of the plough and his sole task was to ensure the ploughshare cut as deeply into the ground as was required for a good break-up of the soil. Herein lies the problem. The distance between the nose of the oxen and the tip of the ploughshare would always be left unploughed at the end of each furrow. This was the butt.

Yet why can it not be the butt seen in archery? Surely these would have been important features in the landscape and their location known to all? Of course this must be true of a few but (pun intended) not of the vast majority and for two very good reasons.

Firstly the decree did not refer to any archery but (pun intended) specifically to the longbow. The crossbow had been in use in this country for years. It took time to load, was not particularly accurate, nor was it overly powerful. This was not the case with the longbow which made it important to practice one’s skills regularly. Thus the decree could not have been issued before the longbow was used by English forces and the first major conflict was the Hundred Years War against the French and the Battle of Sluys in 1340.

Secondly there is the positioning of the ‘butts’. The archery targets were always within easy sight of the church where the rest of the community were at prayer – hence the arrow marks found on many stones in churchyards where arrowheads had been sharpened. This was to prevent archers from enjoying a break from church instead of practising their skills and many of these butt names are nowhere near within sight of the church.

Finally there is the earliest record of the name. Whilst many records are lost there is more than enough to show the term was in use as a place name or field name well before either the longbow, and its subsequent decree, had come into use. Furthermore the use of ‘butt’ as the defensive mound behind the target is from Old French, and the Norman influence in this country is impossible before they arrived on our shores. The Battle of Hastings was fought on October 14th 1066, any butts prior to this are therefore Saxon butts.

We should also note why church was compulsory and those who failed to turn up incurred an increasingly heavy fine for repeated infringements. This would have little to do with incurring the wrath of any deity – the individual would already be keen to ward off such retribution – more likely it was aimed at those who were already doomed to spend eternity in the other place. Consider this as a time when bells rang out every Sunday to call the community to prayer and everyone attended. Those who missed church had the entire village of empty houses just waiting for the unscrupulous visitor to come calling and remove any valuables they could carry. Also a good reason for making sure the archers were within sight of the church.

Having shown just why the butts are unploughed strips at the edge of the field and nothing to do with archery, perhaps there will not be any further minor disagreements at my talks.

Of course there will.

Cambridgeshire Place Names

With the release of my volume looking at the origins of the place names of Cambridgeshire I thought a brief extract would be appropriate. I have chosen the entry which looks at the Undertakers and Adventurers, field names found all over the fenland and not for the reasons one might expect.

Cottenham

Found in 948 as Cotenham and as Coteham in 1086, here is a name from a Saxon personal name and Old English ham and referring to ‘Cotta’s homestead’.

Twenty Pence Road ran alongside a place known for its ‘twenty pens or folds’ in 1596. Alboro Close is from ald burh or ‘the old fortification’. Chear Fenn comes from Old English cear, meaning literally ‘turn’ and describing this twisting way through the fenland. The Lots tells us this was an allocation of land, one of several areas shared amongst a number of locals.

Setchel Fen was known as ‘the enclosure where sedge grows; Smithey Fen tells of the ‘smooth, low-lying land’; while early records of Top Moor show this was known as ‘Taeppa’s marsh’. Individuals who are remembered in the landscape include Jabez Ablett, after whom Ablett’s Row is named, Edward Mason gave his name to Mason’s Pastures both here in 1840, William Taylor was associated with Taylor’s Lodge in 1780, and Lamb’s Cross home to Henry Lamb in 1279.

Time and again in the fenlands of Cambridgeshire we find the field name of the Undertakers. This is not, as we might think, a sign of a burial ground or those who made their living by disposing of corpses. This always refers to fenland which has been drained, the very name tells us those who undertook to dig the drains and ditches did so on the basis they would receive a share of the reclaimed land in return, thereafter turning to farming. Of course the Undertakers were far more numerous than the Adventurers, a name also seen around reclaimed land for they too received land in return for investing money supporting the Undertakers while they were working.

The Hop Bind is a pub name which is derived from the hop, the fruit which is used in brewing. The name is not quite correct, for the true description is a hop bine where the plant grows in a helix around a supporting frame or another plant. The Jolly Millers suggests an association with those in the trade and would be particularly content to be there, the addition of ‘Jolly’ being a common invitation. The Waggon and Horses reminds us of the only way of transporting large quantities of goods until the building of the canals, public houses often acting as agents and distributors.

The local church has a strange narrative told regarding its construction. It made sense to build the church as close to the centre of the community as possible, collectively this makes everyone’s journey as short as possible. The church of All Saints had stood at one point of the village and, when it was agreed to move it, began to remove the blocks of stone and transport them to the new site. However next morning it was discovered every stone had been returned to the original site. On hearing the news the parishioners were so troubled they decided it would be better to leave their church where it stood.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Shropshire Place Names

An excerpt from my book and the entry looking at one of Shropshire’s best-known landmarks – Clee Hill.

Whilst it may seem otherwise, this refers to the village and not the hill itself. The hill name describes the shape of 'ball-shaped or rounded hill'. On the western slope is a road leading around an area of woodland, the conifers playing host to the red squirrel for as long as anyone could remember is today only marked by Squirrel Lane.

The Golden Cross seems to have no etymology associating it with the place, indeed no pub of this name can be explained fully. The cross, despite the temptation to suggest otherwise, does not normally have any religious connection but normally refers to a marker post or maybe a crossroads. It seems the 'golden' addition was only to make it sound more grand because of its humble beginnings.

The other pub in the village has a known etymology and a surprisingly recent one. The Kremlin Inn is the highest pub in the county of Shropshire, indeed it is said to be the highest point between her and a direct line to the Urals. This pub had always been known as the Craven Arms until the early 1970's. In those days licensing laws were different and pubs routinely closed at 2:30pm until the evening session. To encourage patrons to leave promptly after the ten minute 'drinking up' period, the juke box was switched normally off. However as the last '45' finished the (then) large box of equipment started to pick up and emit the sounds of Radio Moscow. Shortly afterwards the place changed its name although there is still little to associate the place with the former Soviet Union.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Lincolnshire Place Names

With the up-coming release of Lincolnshire Place Names, courtesy of Fineleaf Editions, talks in the county on that very subject are on the horizon. Thus here is a taster.

Louth

A name found in Domesday as Lude, although the earlier form of Hludensis monasterium in 790 tells us much more. The name comes from Old English hlud, itself given to the River Lud and describing itself as 'the noisy stream'. Those from Louth are referred to as Ludensians.

The name of the Lincolnshire Poacher may allude to those who lived off the game from the lord of the manor, but here the reference is to the tradition song of The Lincolnshire Poacher. The Miller's Daughter is a typical rural pub name, the sign featuring a young lady with a windmill in the background. The Massingberd Arms is named after the family who have held land here and been resident at nearby Gunby Hall since around 1700.

Louth's most obvious feature is St James' Church or, more correctly, its 295 feet high spire is one of the tallest in the land. The ascent of this daunting climb was made to repair the weathercock and on another occasion the spire itself following lightning strike. However it is the unofficial climbs which are of more interest. In 1771 Anthony Fountain, a sailor from Doncaster, went up and came back down quite safely, although the purpose of this exhausting venture is unknown.

However we do know the reason for Louth cobbler Benjamin Smith climbing the church on 5th May 1818, it was to win a bet he had made with a pedlar. Smith, having just consumed no less than ten pints of beer, boasted he could climb the church without any trouble whatsoever. Up he went, right to the very top where he daringly danced a hornpipe on the top stone of the spire. On the way down he paused to climb and recklessly balance on only one leg on the very point of one pinnacle. When he finally reached the ground he found the joke was on him. The pedlar, whom he left holding his jacket and the stake money, had vanished and he returned to the pub where he still had to pay for his ten pints!

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Hertfordshire Place Names

With the up-coming release of Hertfordshire Place Names talks in the county on that very subject are on the horizon. Thus here is a taster featuring a name synonymous with film, quite relevant with both the BAFTAs and the Oscars in the news.

Elstree

Listed as Tithulfes in the eleventh century, this name features a Saxon personal name and Old English treow and describes 'the boundary tree of a man called Tidwulf'. That the modern form is Elstree and not Telstree is almost to be expected, for Middle English would have described it as atte Telstree and the initial 'T' would have been easily confused with that at the end of the preceding word. Indeed this happens even more often when atte is followed by a vowel at the beginning of the original place name and thus starts 'T-' today.

Cranes Farm was named after Mary Crane, Nicoll Farm remembers Susanna Nicoll, and Palmers named after Edward Palmer, all of whom would have known each other for they were all here in the middle of the eighteenth century. Deacons Hill is of an earlier time, the old chantry here granted by Henry VIII to All Souls College, Oxofrd.

The Fishery Inn is aptly named as it overlooks Aldermaston Lake. The Artichoke was chosen for its image, the vegetable much less common than any tree names such as the Hollybush. The Woodcock is a pub which has taken the place name of Woodcock Hill, which must have been a family name as the habitat is quite wrong for the bird.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Dorset Place Names

A couple of years ago my Dorset Place Names was published. With talks coming up in the county on the subject of the origins of place names, here is a taster.

CERNE ABBAS

Nationally better known for the chalk figure here, it is often overlooked that there is a settlement of this name here. Domesday gives this as simply Cernel, yet by 1288 this is seen as Cerne Abbatis. The two elements have quite different origins, the addition is clearly a reference to this being held by the local abbey, while the main name comes from a Celtic river name. Here is the name of the River Cerne, itself taken from a Celtic term carn meaning 'cairn, heap of stones'. Now even today a cairn is a marker and it is easy to see this as the same thing historically, although whether this was a marker for this place or if it was a route marker is unclear.

Local names include Acerman Street, telling of the 'place of the farm workers', and Andrews Lane which was home to the family of Samuel Andrews.

The local pub is the Cerne Giant, the chalk figure has been the subject of much debate in recent times as to its age. Generally thought to be at least Saxon and even pre-Roman, there is no mention of this figure before the 17th century. By cutting trenches a foot wide and one foot deep a figure of a naked man has been created, standing 180 feet high and 157 feet wide. In 1996 archaeologists discovered his left hand had once held a cloak and there had been a disembodied head at its feet. No conclusion was reached as to the age of the figure, or of who or what it represents. Doubtless the arguments will continue for some time to come.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Cornwall Place Names

With the up-coming release of Cornwall Place Names talks in the county on that very subject are on the horizon. Thus here is a taster.

Dobwalls

A rather unusual name listed as Dobbewalles in 1619, for it describes 'the walls of the Dobbe family'. The A38 by-pass has two so-called bat bridges, these are designed to continue the lines of the hedgerows removed for the construction of the road, thus keeping the bats on course and away from the speeding traffic below.

Bosigran is a local name recorded as Boschygarn in 1361 and is thought to refer to 'the dwelling at the lost place of Chycarn'. Appearing as Coldruscot in 1418, Caduscot is an Old Cornish name meaning 'the ridge across a wood'. Connon Bridge is a corruption of the original 'bridge at or of the convent'. Coombe is from Old English cumb or 'the valley'. Two Waters Foot tells us it is at 'the foot of two streams'

Doublebois still betrays its French origins, the name describing 'the wood split into two parts'. Found as Pennant in 1357, the Old Cornish name of Pennant describes its location 'at the head of the valley'. Plashford is an Old English name from plaesc ford 'the marshy ford'. Seen as Polmena in 1627, Polmenna is a name describing 'the pool at the hillside'.

St Pinnock, listed as Pynnoke in 1442, is another place taking its name from one of the many Cornish saints. East Taphouse is 'the eastern alehouse', east of Middle Alehouse and East Alehouse, which are found under Braddock. Trevelmond is a combination of Middle English atte and the French bel mont and speaking of this being found 'at the fair hill'.

A pub named the Highwayman suggests an image of a mysterious figure more associated with acts of derring-do rather than that of a murderous robber. Both piracy and smuggling also seem to attract such romanticism. However as the pub has only been here since 1963 the image of the villain has been taken to represent what effectively is a pub on a highway.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Cambridgeshire Place Names

With the up-coming release of Cambridgeshire Place Names talks in the county on that very subject are on the horizon. Thus here is a taster.

Barrington

Domesday lists this name as Barentone, a name taking a Saxon personal name and adding Old English tun to refer to 'Bara's farmstead'.

One local road has the unusual name of Whole Way. This comes from old English holh weg and refers to 'the road through the hollow', it covers the way to Harlton. Stead Lane takes its name from stede, simply meaning 'place, position' and referring to a certain spot on the road, not the destination.

Cracknow Hill means 'crack waggon hill', a reference to how steep it is, thus likely to break any waggon, particularly an overladen one. Edix Hill Hole may be a diminutive for Edward, while there is no doubt the original reference was to the Saxon cemetery here. Fox Hill Down Farm describes the 'hill or valley (ostensibly different aspects of the same thing) by the nook frequented by foxes', Wilsmere Down Farm was originally 'Wulfmaer's down or slope', and Balk Plantation is from balke a word denoting 'an unworked ridge separating two cultivated strips'.

Barrington Hall was once home to the Bendyshe family. While the building and spacious grounds date back to the seventeenth century, with later obviously Georgian improvements, the family can trace their family back much further and are one of the oldest in the county.

The local here has one of the most common names in the country, indeed the Royal Oak is probably second only to the Red Lion in popularity. It commemorates one of the most famous episodes in English history when, following defeat at the Battle of Worcester in 1651, Charles II and his aide Colonel Carless hid in the Boscobel Oak while the Parliamentarians walked just feet below them during this stage of the pursuit. Years later, at the Restoration of the Monarchy, the king's birthday of 29th May was declared Royal Oak Day.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Somerset Place Names

A couple of years ago my Somerset Place Names was published. Recently I was asked the origin of the cathedral city of Wells and, having sold that person a copy of the book, offer the full entry for this delightful corner of England which can boast the smallest population of any cathedral city in England.

Wells

We hardly need the records of Willan from 1050 and that of Welle in 1086 to see this is from Old English wella to describe 'the springs'.

The Fountain Inn may be heraldic, representing the Master Mariners or Company of Plumbers but, considering the meaning of the name of the city, most likely refers to the local spring. The Globe Inn represents a simple image and also hints that all are welcome, while the Kings Head refers to the monarchy in general, and the scenic splendour to the northwest is marked by the name of the Cheddar Valley Inn.

The streets of this small city have their own tale to tell. What was changed to Union Street in the middle of the 19th century had formerly been Grope Street, a name which tells us it was narrow and poorly lit, hence pedestrians having to grope their way along in the dark. Priest Row was probably named after the 13th century priest who lived here. Vicar's Close was named after another cleric, Thomas de Devnysche, who bequeathed this land to the city for development in his 14th century will. Wet Lane no longer exists for it is now called Broad Street, although on the day the author visited both names were equally appropriate.

Ash Lane took its name from the ash trees which grew around here. Chamberlain Street was named after the official who decided to clean up what had previously been, both in name and in actuality, Beggar Street. Market Street also enjoyed a change of name from Mede Street, the former name showing this had previously been the back way into the centre while the present version is self-explanatory. Moniers Lane is named after the respected Peter le Monier, a moneyer who plied his 'trade' between Dartmouth, Exeter, Wells and Bristol and everywhere in between during the 13th century. Sadler Street remembers John Sadler, a 15th century merchant who received a 'necessary pardon' after the Wars of the Roses, for he had backed the losing side but his worth to the city saved him. Tucker Street shows cloth making was here from an early time for this was an early alternative name for a weaver.

Of course the city has a long association with the church and the streets also reflect this. The cathedral is dedicated to St Andrew, founded in 705 the present building dates from 1180, the name was transferred to St Andrews Street. St Cuthbert Street takes its name from the church, this being the third building dedicated to St Cuthbert and dates from the 13th century. St Thomas Street leads to the church built by Teulon, the architect being hired by Dean Jenkyns to cater for the poor of the parish. Sadly the benefactor did not live to see the beginning of the work which was completed in three years. Furthermore neither did his widow, Troth Jenkyns, who also died before the church opened to parishioners, from a chill she caught during the ceremony of laying the foundation stone.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Buckinghamshire Place Names

Recently published by Fineleaf , both as a paperback and now as an ebook, my look at the place names of Buckinghamshire includes the town of Beaconsfield. As a taster here is something from this new book.

Beaconsfield

An Old English place name from beacen feld which describes 'the open land by the beacon or signal fire'. The name appears in a document of 1184 as Bekenesfelds. Incidentally none of the early forms explain why the place name is pronounced 'beckon-' rather than the 'beacon-'.

Copshrews Court is a rather corrupted version of a name describing 'the coppice row of trees'; Hall Barn began life as 'Healla's mor or mashland'; from the thirteenth century the Gregory family were at Gregory's Farm; Hyde Farm, a reminder of the manor called Hide seen since the fourteenth century as a area usually described as equal to 120 acres but this depends largely on the quality of the soil; Butler's Court was home to John Botiler in 1443; Wilton Park was the manor of Thomas de Whelton by 1344; and Holloway's Farm was home to the family of Henry Holweye in 1370.

The most common pub name in the country is the Red Lion. As with the vast majority of 'coloured animal' names this is heraldic. Most Red Lions represent Scotland and date from the accession of James VI of Scotland as James I of England. Earlier examples point to John of Gaunt, the most powerful man in England during the fourteenth century. Such is the popularity of the name that many of the more recent names must be considered to have been chosen simply because the name of the Red Lion is synonymous with the public house.

Along similar lines is the Royal Standard of England, a name dating from the seventeenth century when Charles II visited the premises. Named after one of the most successful of British writers is the Charles Dickens. The Prince of Wales is a common name, most refer to the man who went on to become Edward VII who, until recently, had held the title for longer than anyone.

The Greyhound depicts the famous mail coach which ran between London and Birmingham. The addition of 'jolly' to a name is an early trick used by inn-keepers to suggest a good time was to be had within. In the case of the Jolly Cricketers the addition was to an existing name, one taken from it being the base for the local cricket team.

Former prime minister Benjamin Disraeli was member of parliament for Beaconsfield. As a favourite of Queen Victoria he was made Earl of Beaconsfield in 1876. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, when towns and cities across the land saw an explosion in residential development, Beaconsfield had been so much in the public eye it was an obvious choice for street names everywhere. Names which are still seen today.

Bekonscot is a created name, a phonetic spelling of the pronunciation of Beacon- and substituting -cot for -field as the originator came from Ascot, while also suggesting this place is smaller. For this is indeed smaller, a model village created from the 1920s by accountant Roland Callingham (1881-1961) in his large back garden. With the assistance of his gardener, cook, maid and chauffeur they designed the layout which is a virtual snapshot of English rural life in the decade leading up to the Second World War.

Together they adapted existing features to the landscape. The former swimming pool became a sea, a rockery readily took on the appearance of rolling hills, and the leading model railway designers Bassett-Lowke were called in for the railway. The latter is worthy of special mention as this gauge 1 layout would scale up to ten miles, and still features trains which have been running for some 50 years, each of the ten locomotives covering an average of 2,000 miles every year. Since 1978 the model has been owned by the Church Army, who have welcomed fifteen million visitors enabling them to donate around five million pounds to charity.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

Cheshire Place Names

Recently published by Fineleaf , both as a paperback and now as an ebook, my look at the place names of Cheshire includes the town of Nantwich. As a taster here is something from this new book.

Nantwich

Recorded as Wich in 1086 and as Nametwihc in 1194, this name unites Old English wic and Middle English named and tells of 'the famed or renowned salt works'.

Barker Street is an earlier name than one which could refer to a barker or market trader, this comes from barkere straet and describes 'the lane of the tanners'. Cart Lake is from kartr laec 'the bog or stream where carts are seen', the same watercourse crossed by Beam Street as it becomes Beam Bridge and tells us it was constructed from 'wooden beams'.

Castle Street was named after an old castle, not a trace of which remains, earlier it was known as Pudding Lane which tells us it was known for its 'entrails, offal' which littered the street. Hospital Street was the site of the Hospital of St Nicholas, founded in the 11th century. First Wood Street and Second Wood Street were both where supplies of cut wood were stored; Barony Road is the last surviving clue to the once extensive holdings of the Malbano family; and in 1621 Sir Roger Wilbraham founded the Wilbrahams Almshouses for six poor men of the town.

Public houses of Nantwich include the Boot & Shoe, a welcome to leather workers producing footwear in the area. The Swan With Two Necks makes a nice image, hence why it was used by the Worshipful Company of Vintners and the Dyers' Company, and several others. Similarly the Leopard is an heraldic symbol representing the Weavers Company. The Frog and Ferret has no true etymology, it is a name which is quite suited for a pub name for it represents aliteration and two items which are otherwise unrelated.

The Wilbraham Arms features a family which have been associated with the place since Richard de Wilbraham was Sheriff of Cheshire by 1269. The Wickstead Arms remembers the family who came to England with William the Conqueror in 1066. The Cotton Arms is named after the family who were resident at Combermere Abbey, the inn dates back to the sixteenth century and was built in part using ships timbers.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.

What's in a Name?

The capital cities of the world are well known names. However how many of these do we understand? Where do they come from? Who named them? Why were they chosen? What do they mean?

Some are obvious, such as Mexico City states it is in Mexico, although the name of the city meaning 'in the navel of the waters of the moon' came first. Similarly Brasilia was created to be the modern city when it was set out in the 1950s, the name of Brazil is a Portuguese word brassa referring the red dye obtained from the brazil wood. Algeria is after the capital Algiers, Arabic for 'the islands' where it was founded. Luxembourg and Luxembourg is a Saxon description of 'the little town'. Monaco and Monaco are from the Greek monoikos meaning 'hermit, monk'.

Andorra and Andorra la Vella, share a name from Basque andurrial or 'heath'. Djibouti was always the name of the capital city of Djibouti, formerly French Somaliland, and from the Afa word gabouri meaning the 'plate' woven from palm fibres for ceremonial purposes. Guatemala and Guatemala City take the name from Tuendal Indian uhatzmahla or 'the mountain that gushes out water', the Agua volcano. Panama and Panama City are from a native tribal name meaning 'many fishes' which was influenced by Spanish pronunciation. San Marino and San Marino are named in honour of St Marinus. Singapore and Singapore are from Sanskrit singa pura, quite literally 'lion town' and thought to refer to 'strength' as lions have never been indigenous to this reason in recent times.

The remainder, listed alphabetically making each easier to locate, begin with Afghanistan's Kabul. itself from River Kabul thought to be a word meaning 'red'. In Albania we find Tirana, which is most likely from Tirania, the ancient name for Tuscany. To Angola where Luanda is derived from 'the place of the net', this is not the internet but a reference to the many fishermen. Antingua and Barbuda's capital is Saint John's, a reference to Christianity and the apostle. Religion is also seen in Argentina and Buenos Aries, wich is the abbreviated form of the original Spanish name meaning 'City of the Most Holy Trinity and port of Our Lady of the Virgin Mary of Good Winds'.

Armenia and Yerevan is thought to refer to 'the abode of the god Aru'. While Canberra, Australia's capital city, is an aboriginal word meaning 'meeting place'. To Austria and Vienna is river name from a Celtic word from either vedunia 'tree' or vindo 'white'. Baku is the capital of Azerbaijan and means 'windswept'. The Bahamas and Nassau is from the house of Orange-Nassau, that of King William III, originally from an Old High German phrase meaning 'marsh land'.

One of the newest independent nations Bangladesh and Dhaka is thought to be named after the temple built in the twelfth century to the Goddess Dhakeshwari. Barbados and Bridgetown took the local name of Indian Bridge with an obvious adjustment. Belarus has Minsk, almost certainly named after a river and thus a simplistic reference to water. To Belgium where Brussels was originally known as Bruoc-sella or 'the settlement in the marshes'.

The name of Belize was also the name of the capital city, until it was destroyed in a hurricane in 1961. The reborn capital took the first syllable of the old name and that of the river on which it stands, the Mopan, to give Belmopan. Benin's captial of Porto-Novo is simply Portuguese for 'the new harbour'. Bolivia has two capitals, its administrative centre is La Paz 'new town of Our Lady of Peace' and its judicial capital Sucre is named after the legendary Antonio de Sucre.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has Sarajevo, a name derived from the Turkish saray ovası and speaking of the 'field around saray'. When the Botswana capital city of Gaborone was founded in 1890 the ruling chief was one Gaborone Matlapin. Similarly Brunei had Bandar Seri Begawan named after the father of the new sultan, who had retired leaving 'the town of the illustrious one'.

Bulgaria's Sofia is taken from the Greek meaning 'wisdom'. Cambodia and Phnom Penh is 'Pehn's hill', said to be after a legendary fourteenth century nun who went to fetch water from the Mekong where she found a hollow tree floating, inside were four bronze and one stone statue of Buddha.

Cameroon and Yaounde is a corruption of the Ewondo ethnic group who inhabited this region. Canada and Ottawa named after the Native American tribe the Outaouacs, here from the region around Lake Huron and whose name means 'traders'. Cape Verde is an old Portuguese colony and the capital city of Praia is Portuguese for 'beach'.

The Central African Republic has Bangui, named after the Ubangi River. Chad and N'Djamena is a local word meaning 'repose'. Chile and Santiago is named after St James, the Spanish settlers referring to it as San Jago. China's capital of Beijing is most simplistic in referring to the 'northern capital'. To Colombia and Bogota, a Spanish-influenced Bacata, thought to represent a Native Indian tribal chief. The capital of the Comoros is a local word meaning 'heart of fire' and recorded as Moroni. Named after Pierre de Brazza, with the French ville or 'town', the nineteenth century founder, Brazzaville is the capital city of the Republic of the Congo.

Costa Rica and San Jose is a Spanish settlement dedicated to 'St Joseph'. Named after Queen Yamousso, Cote d'Ivoire's capital is Yamoussoukro. Croatia and Zagreb is thought to be a result of a Slavonic dialect describing the '(place) beyond the ditch or dam'. Cyprus and Nicosia, said to be a corrupton of the Greek name for the city, Lefkosia. Czech Republic and the origin of Prague depends upon the language, for Czech praziti would give 'place where wood has been burned' while Slavonic prati would refers to 'the workings (of fish dykes in the river)'. In Denmark and Danish kiopman havn speaks of 'the harbour of the merchant' and the name of Copenhagen.

Dominica and Roseau is the French for 'reeds'. Domincan Republic and Santo Domingo is clearly named in honour of St Domingo. After the Native Indian Quitu tribe comes the capital of Ecuador, Quito. With an Arabic name of Misr-al-Qahirah or 'Mars the victorious', the Egyptian city of Cairo is an anglicised version of the last part of the original name. El Salvador and San Salvador both show the Spanish settlers referred to this as 'the Saviour', that is dedicated to Jesus Christ.

Equatorial Guinea and Malabo is thought to be named after Pool Malebo, itself referring to the large palm trees on its shores. Eritrea and Asmara is the Tigre word for 'live in peace'. Estonia and Tallinn takes the local taani linna to refer to 'the town of the Danes'. Ethiopia and Addis Ababa features the Amharic addis abeba or 'the new flower'. At Finland the capital city of Helsinki was originally known as Helsingfors, where Swedish fors or 'waterfall' follwos the name of the local tribe.

France and Paris, where the Parisii were the Gaulish tribe named for being 'sailors', clearly on the River Seine. Gabon and Libreville was where the freed slaves were brought in 1848, the name from French meaning 'free town'. The Gambia and Banjul is thought to refer to the 'rope mats' once produced here. Georgia where Tblisi is a local word meaing 'warm' and a reference to the natural springs which bubble up here. Germany and Berlin is a very early name in a region which has many links to ancient cultures and could have meanings as varied as 'lake, hill, dam, place of judgement, customs post, sandy place' depending on the original language. Ghana and Accra from akannkran or 'black ant', te name given to the tribe around here. Greece and Athens, traditionally held to be after the goddess Athene, yet the place may have given the goddess and name.

Grenada and Saint George's is a dedication to St George. Guinea and Conakry is a Susu word referring to 'those over the waters'. Guinea Bissau and Bissau is also the name of the tribe which originally inhabited the island. Guyana and Georgetown was named in honour of the ruling monarch, George III, when the British took control. Haiti and Port-au-Prince is French for 'the port of the prince'.

Hungary and few can be unaware that Budapest is actually two cities, both of Slavonic origin and each with two quite diverse potential meanings: Buda 'building, water' and Pesht 'cave, hearth'. Iceland and Reykjavik unites Icelandic reyka and Norse vik describing 'the inlet of the geysers'. India and New Delhi is thought to represent Hindi dilli meaning 'threshold'.

Indonesia and Jakarta is from Sanskrit jaya kerta or 'the place of victory'. In Iran the name of Tehran aptly describes the heat in summer months from Old Persian teh ran 'the warm place'. Iraq and Baghdad is Iranian bag dad 'the gift of God'. In the Republic of Ireland and the Irish dubh linn describes 'the black lake' on which Dublin is built. Not the Irish name for Dublin is Baile Atha Cliath or 'the town of the ford of the hurdle'.

In Israel Old Hebrew ieru shalem describes Jerusalem as 'the house of peace'. Jamaica's capital city is Kingston, named after the British King William III. Formerly known as Edo meaning 'estuary', Japan's capital city of Tokyo speaks of 'the eastern capital'. In Jordan the city Amman is named after the Egyptian god Ammon, much in the way Christian saints are adopted to watch over them. Kazakhstan's Astana is quite simply 'the capital city'. In Kenya the name of Nairobi takes the name of the tribe who, in turn, took the name of the stream meaing 'cold water'.

North Korea's capital of Pyongyang describes the 'flat land'. In South Korea Seoul means, quite simply 'capital city'. In Kosovo Pristina takes the name of a figure associated with this place. Kuwait and Kuwait City gave its name to the country, from Arabic meaning 'the enclosed' and a reference to a sixteenth century Portuguese fort. The capital of Kyrgyzstan is Bishkek, a word thought to refer to a churn used to hold fermented milk from mares.

In Laos Vientiane is simply the French version of the local name meaning 'city of sandalwood'. Riga, the capital of Latvia, is a Slavonic word meaning simply 'river'. In Lebanon the name of Beirut is either Aramaic berotha 'pine trees' or Phoenician beroth 'wells'. Meaning 'the place of red sandstone', Maseru is the capital of Lesotho. Named in honour of James Monroe, the president who liberated many slaves to Liberia, the capital is Monrovia.

Libya's Tripoli is Greek for 'three towns', the ancient cities of Oea, Sabratha, and Leptis Magna. Liechtenstein's Vaduz has several potential origins, however generally all describe its location in the valley or the river which runs through it. Similarly Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, is a Baltic-Slavonic word describing the river or the valley as 'winding'.

Madagascar and Antananarivo describes 'the city of a thousand', the number of soldiers ordered to defend it by King Adrianjaka. Malawi and Lilongwe sits on 'the long river' which gave it its name. In Malaysia the 'muddy confluence' is today known as Kuala Lumpur. Maldives capital of Male comes from Sanskrit for 'big house'.

Mali's capital of Bamako tells us it had the rather inauspicious beginnings 'behind Bamma's village'. The island of Malta named its capital Valletta after Jean Parisot de La Vallette, Grand Master of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem. Mauritania's Nouakchott comes from Berber 'the place of the winds'. In Mauritius Port Louis was named after the French King Louis XV.

From Moldova and Chisinau speaks of 'the new spring'. Mongolia's Ulaanbaatar describes 'the red warrior', in honour of Dandiimy Suhbaatar who founded the modern republic. Montenegro and Podgorica describes its place 'under the small hill'. North Africa and Morocco and the Arabic word ribat or 'fort' is today seen as Rabat. In Mozambique, Maputo was named after one of the sons of Nuagobe, the local chief in the eighteenth century.

Myanmar has two capitals, that of Rangoon is Burmese for 'end of strife', while the administrative capital of Nay Pyi Taw is from the same language and means 'great city of the sun'. Namibia's capital Windhoek is easy to see as Dutch for 'the windy cape'. Nepalese kath mandir describes the 'wooden temple' traditional built by Raja Lachmina in 1596 using just a single tree has given a name to Katmandu, the capital of Nepal. In the Netherlands there are two capitals, traditionally Amsterdam is from 'the dam on the River Amstel' and the seat of government at The Hague is Dutch for 'the enclosure'.

New Zealand's Wellington is named after the former soldier and statesman the Duke of Wellington. Nicaragua and Managua is from Mana-ahuac and translates to 'surrounded by water'. In Niger the tribe crossed the River Niger to the place where Niamey now stands, itself held to be where a tree stood at the water's edge, the name meaning 'the shore where the tree draws water'. Nigeria's Abujatook its name from the house of the chieftain, a name meaning 'Abu the Red'.

In Norway we find 'the mouth of the River Lo' or Oslo. In the east to Oman where Muscat is a native word meaning 'hidden'. No surprise to find the Pakistan capital of Islamabad meaning 'the city of Islam'. When explorer Captain John Moresby became the first European to see Papua New Guinea, he named Port Moresby after his father Admiral Sir Fairfax Moresby. The name of Paraguay's Asuncion is Spanish referring to 'Our Lady of the Assumption', on whose feast day their original fort here was finished.

The ancient culture of Peru and Lima is named after the River Rimac on which it stands, itself referring to the god whose name means 'he who speaks'. In the Philippines Manila is from the native Tagalog language may nila 'the place where there is indigo'. When defining Poland's captial city of Warsaw we fnd numerous suggestions but only which seems remotely likely. 'the place of Warsz', the founder. In Portugal Lisbon is thought to be a remnant of the Phoenician merchants where alis ubbo describes 'the joyful bay'. A most unusual name is found for Qatar's Doha, of Arabic origin meaning 'the sticky tree'. The Romanian city of Bucharest is traditionally held to have been founded by the shepherd Bucur in the fifteenth century, however records of the place predate this and it is derived from Albanian bucur 'pleasant'.

In Russia Moscow is named after the River Moskva, itself with a number of possible origins but most often said to represent Slavonic moskva 'marshy'. Saint Kitts and Nevis where Basseterre is French for 'low land'. French is also the origin for Saint Lucia's capital Castries, here describing 'safe anchorage'. Kingstown, capital of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, speaks for itself as being named for the monarch.

The capital of Sao Tome and Principe is Sao Tome, easy to see as St Thomas and comes from Portuguese. Saudi Arabia's capital is Riyadh, Arabic for 'garden'. In Senegal the local Wolof tongue of the native Lebu tribe probably describes Dakar as being founded at the 'tamarind tree'. Slavonic for 'white fortress' describes the fourth century beginnings of Belgrade in Serbia. In the Seychelles the name of Victoria represents Latin for 'victory'.

In Sierra Leone Freetown was an English settlement for liberated slaves. Slovakia's Bratislava was named to honour Prince Braslav and literally means 'Braslav's glory'. To Slovenia where Ljubljana's origins depend upon the language although, if this was Slovenian, would most likely be ljubljena or 'the beloved one'.

When the English arrived at the Solomon Islands, they mispronounced the name of the settlement Nagoniara as Honiara, although this does not change the meaning of 'in front of the wind'. The Arabic name of Mogadishu tells us Somalia's capital means 'the seat of the Shah'. Three capitals in South Africa, Pretoria is administrative and was named in honour of Andries Pretorius the Boar leader, while the legislative Cape Town is named for its position on the Cape of Good Hope, and Bloemfontein is the judiciary capital derived from Boer Dutch 'flowers of the spring'.

Spain's Madrid recalls the Moorish fort of Majrit, meaning 'place of the abundant water'. Colombo is the capital of Sri Lanka, Sinhalese mefrom kolon thota 'the port on the River Kelani'. In the Sudan the historic city of Khartoum is an Arabic name meaning 'elephant's trunk' and describing its shape. Suriname's Paramaribo is from the local tongue where para maribo refers to 'the dwellers by the sea'.

Swaziland took the name of the chief Mbabane Khunene as the inspiration for Mbabane, itself the stream name meaning 'that which crushes'. Sweden's Stockholm is an old name but one where the suffix is certainly holmr 'island', the first element is less certain but stak 'bay' is one possibility. Switzerland's Berne is also very old meaning there is uncertainty, the most interesting suggestion is an early Indo-European word ber meaning 'marshy place'.

The Syrian capital of Damascus has genuine claims to be among the world's oldest surviving cities, a fact making definition difficult but may be from a word describing it as an 'industrious' place. Taiwan's Taipei is simply 'the northern capital'. Tajikistan's capital is from the local word meaning 'Monday', presumably the day Dushanbe was founded. Two capital for Tanzania, the traditional Dar es Salaam is Arabic for 'house of peace' while the legislative centre of Dodoma is Gongo for 'it has sunk'.

Thailand's name of Bangkok could refer to simply 'the island' or 'the Java plum tree' depending upon this representing bang kok or bang koh. Lome is the capital of Togo, from Alotime which, in the local Ewe, means 'among the Alo trees'. The Tongan languange named the capital of Tonga Nuku'alofa meaning 'residence and love'. In the Caribbean the chief city of Trinidad and Tobago is Port-of-Spain, founded by the Spanish near the native fishing village of Cumucurapo or 'the place of the silk cotton trees'.

In Turkey Ankara is from an Indo-European ank with Phrygian influence describing 'the crooked ravine'. Turkmenistan gets the name of its capital city, Ashgabat, from a combination of Turmenian uskh and Iranian abad meaning 'the pleasant town'. In Tuvalu the name of Funafuti comes from the wife of the founder Telematua literrally meaning 'the she banana'.

In Uganda Kampala is named after the hill on which it stands, itself describing 'the hill slopes where impala graze'. In Ukrainian the name of Kyiv means 'belonging to Kyi'. The United Arab Emirates' capital of Abu Dhabi means 'the father of the gazelle'. In the United States of America the capital of Washington D.C. is named after one of its most famous early citizens and first president of a united nation, George Washington.

Uruguay's Montevideo is thought to represent Portuguese where the cry monte vidi eo meant 'I saw the mountain'. The Turkish tash and Iranian kent unite to tell us the Uzbekistan capital of Tashkent refers to 'the town of stone'. Another Portuguese origin is seen in Vanuatu where Port-Vila tells of 'the port town'.

Vatican City is not onlya city but an independent nation, whether this qualifies as a capital city is debatable, however the name comes from the Mons Vaticanus, the hill of which it stands meaning 'the place of divination', ironically a pagan shrine. The Venezuelan capital of Caracas is named after the warrior tribe who lived here. Vietnam's Hanoi was originally called Kecho, simply 'capital', the present name describes its position 'surrounded by the river'.

The Yemen capital of Sanaa comes from a local term simply meaning 'well fortified'. Zambia's Lusaka is taken from the name of the former chief who resided at the railway siding at the end of the nineteenth century. Lastly Zimbabwe where Harare is said to be named from the chief Neharare who is held to have been buried beneath the hill on which this city stands.

There are those which are unknown such as Bahrain and Manama, Bhutan and Thimphu, Burkina Faso and Ouagadougou, Burundi and Bujumbura, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Kinshasa, Cuba and Havana, East Timor and Dili, Fiji and Suva, Honduras and Tegucigalpa, Kiribati and Tarawa Atoll, Macedonia and Skopje, Marshall Islands and Majuro, Federated States of Micronesia and Palikir, Palau and Melekeok, Rwanda and Kigali, Samoan and Apia, Tunisia and Tunis, and also the United Kingdom and our own capital city of London.

Clearly all have some major significance at the time they were named. Many of these may seem of little importance today, yet these represent the most delightful of meanings and origins. Doubtless these will change with time, spelling is easily corrupted, origins and meanings are misunderstood, even lost. We should ensure that each and every one is recorded for posterity. It would be criminal if the length of the previous paragraph of 'unknowns' grew with time.

Place Names of Wellingborough, Northamptonshire

Whether this place is found as Wendlesberie as in 1086, or Wenlingeburg in 1199, or as Wendlingburgh in 1220 the origin is undoubtedly a Saxon personal name followed by inga burh. Thus here we have an origin of 'the fortification of a the family or followers of Waendel'.

Street names include that of Winstanley Road named after Gerrard Winstanley, the founder of the so-called Diggers, an agrarian community of the mid-17th century whose history is hardly recorded, which suggests this was deliberate, while the street name comes from public knowledge. Furthermore the names of neighbouring streets suggests the name was probably chosen to commemorate some (unknown) act by Winstanley. Here Knox Road and Newcomen Road are named after John Knox, the Scottish Presbyterian clergyman, and Matthew Newcomen, a English nonconformist preacher. St Rochus Drive Ranelagh Road takes its name from the pub, itself from the Irish peerage; the earls Spencer, based at Althrop, gave their name to Spencer Road; and Palk Road, is named after Sir Robert Palk, cleric and politician.

Other streets have themes, golf being the basis for the names of Hoylake, Muirfield Road, Wentworth Avenue, Troon Crescent, and Gleneagles Drive. The Lake District provided the inspiration for the names which include: Coniston Drive, a town, a lake known as Coniston Water, and the fell known as the Old Man of Coniston; Penrith Drive is after the popular market town; Windermere Drive is named after the town (known as Birthwaite prior to the arrival of the railway) and the largest lake in England; Bowness is a road named after the town which stands on the Lake Windermere and is officially known as Bowness-on-Windermere, the town of Windermere itself being about a mile up the hill; and Thirlmere Drive is named after the two lakes, Leathes Water and Wythburn Water, which were dammed to create a reservoir to feed the city of Manchester in the 1890s.

There is also an avian theme, featuring Nest Farm Crescent, Nest Lane, Fulmar Lane, Gannet Lane, Kestrel Lane, Linnet Close, Heron Close, Guillemot Lane, Sandpiper Lane, Robin Lane, Osprey Lane, Swallow Lane, and Thrush Lane.

Appleby Gate is derived from the name of the lords of the manor by 1292, one Henry de Appelby who take their surname from the place in Leicestershire. Croyland Hall Farm is also manorial, referring to this being a possession by the Abbot of Croyland by 1199.

Pubs here include the Crown and Anchor, the symbol of the Lord High Admiral and worn on the sleeve of all petty officers in the Royal Navy, it is a favourite of retired officers who return to land as publicans.

The days when public houses were the equivalent of motorway service stations are commemorated by names such as Coach & Horses, Nags Head, Horseshoe Inn, and the Gloster which was a famous coaching service. Later came the railways and a new source of inspiration for names such as the Locomotive. Local landmarks are always are popular, for they can act as signposts to the pub. Here we find examples such as the Litten Tree, Cottage Inn, Priory, Park Tavern,

The nobility are represented by the Royal, Prince of Wales, Queens Head, and the Duke of York of nursery rhyme fame. The duke in question is Frederick Augustus (1763-1827), son of George III who commanded the English army in Flanders. However the rhyme does the man no favours, for while he may well have been 'Grand' he certainly was not old for he was only 31 at the time. Neither did he lead 10,000 men up or down hills, for there are no hills around here and he had a minimum of 30,000 men under his command. Patriotic names include the British Arms and the George Inn, after the patron saint.

Heraldry is always a popular theme, the image seen outside the Cannon could refer to any of the children of Henry VIII who ascended to the throne after him, Edward VI, Queen Mary, or Queen Elizabeth I. The Star Inn is a religious symbol, often portrayed as the star of Bethlehem, it also refers to the Virgin Mary. The Eagle has been used to represent more families than any other image; the Golden Lion represents either Henry I or the Percy family, dukes of Northumberland; the Ranelagh Arms after that Irish peerage; and Vivian Arms comes from the barons Vivian.

The Boot Inn is named to remember the old boot factory, a major local employer for many years. This industry is also the reason for the Crispin Arms, St Crispin being the patron saint of boot makers. The Volunteer is named for the soldiers who offered their services in the two world wars and the Napoleonic wars. The Hind Hotel is the former home of Sir Christopher Hatton, lord of this manor. He was a sponsor of Sir Francis Drake on his voyages, Drake naming one of his ships the Golden Hind from the heraldic symbol on the family crest, a vessel which had left on the first circumnavigation of the globe as the Pelican and was renamed during the voyage.

The Red Well, which differs from the place name of Redwell, is named after the 'reedy spring' where King Charles I brought his 19-year-old consort Queen Henrietta Maria in 1628. To partake of these waters was said to be be an excellent remedy for fertility problems. Whether they are or not is unrecorded, yet by the time they returned nine years later they had had four children. The Dog and Duck is another with royal connections for Charles II in particular was fond of this hunting method, where ducks with clipped wings were released on to a local pond. Unable to escape by flight, they would attempt to avoid the dogs by diving. In later years the name is often interpreted as the more easily recognised modern duck hunter with his faithful retriever.

The Ock 'N' Dough is a pub name chosen from suggestions by locals. Just after the Millennium celebrations had ended the new pub was open and named for a traditional local delicacy. This consists of a pork hock (or 'Ock) with potatoes in a vegetable stock which, when baked in a pie, produces a soft pastry (or 'Dough') base and a crisp top crust. While a change of owner means the pie is sadly no longer on sale here, it is still savoured by the community.

The Etymology of Bridgwater, Somerset

In response to an email recieved this week asking why there is no 'e' at the end of the 'bridge' in Bridgwater, I recall the entry for the town from my book Somerset Place Names.

A name which, not surprisingly, is seen as 'the bridge over the water' and where one 'e' has been lost over the centuries. The missing vowel is correct but the definition is not. The record from Domesday gives this place as Brugie, while a century later in 1194 this has become Bridgewaltier. This 12th century example is significant for it shows that the second part cannot be 'water', for this is never seen in forms this early. The true origin here is 'the place at the bridge held by a man called Walter', with the suffix and early name coming from Old English brycg. While this individual is neither known nor recorded, it was a popular name at the time and is undoubtedly the basis for the place name.
Locally we find Barclay Street, named after the Barclay Arms Inn. Castle Bailey takes the name of the medieval castle, as does Castle Street. Yet the latter was earlier known as Chandos Street and what is now Chandos Street was once Little Chandos Street and the two remember the family name of the Duke of Buckingham who funded these developments.
Eastover was recorded as Estovre in 1323, a name describing 'the 'eastern bank of land'. Horse Pond was where these animals were taken for centuries to be watered in Durleigh Brook. Friarn Street and Friarn Avenue are named after the Franciscan Friary which was founded here in the 13th century. Penel Orlieu was originally two streets named from a member of the family which should have been Orloue.
Other pubs here include the Cross Rifles, acknowledging the formation of the local Rifle Volunteer Force in 1859. The Great Escape may conjure up images of the film of that name, but it is used here as a message of invitation to get away from it all for a while, similarly the Bunch of Grapes advertises the product on sale within. The Bristol and Exeter remembers the railway line which served these places and which was opened in 1840.
Patriotic names include the Rose & Crown, the Three Lions, the British Flag, and the King Alfred Inn which remembers the man who united the English against the Danes. The Green Dragon shows this was associated with the holdings of the earls of Pembroke, while the Quantock Inn refers to the hills of that name to the north and which are defined under their own name.
The Parrett Inn overlooks the River Parrett across Salmon Parade for this was where these coveted food fish were brought. Horse Pond was a watering hole for horses on the Durleigh Brook for centuries. High Street is only above the remaining roads in importance and stature, not elevation. St Mary Street is overlooked by the church which gave it a name, while Friarn Street remembers the 13th century Franciscan Friary. Chandos Street features the family name of the dukes of Buckingham. Castle Street and Castle Bailey are reminders of the medieval castle, however neither the town moat and Moat Lane are no more. Dampiet Street was listed as Damyet Street five centuries ago, which shows it featured a raised area to help prevent flooding. Penel Orlieu is an unusual street name, with an even more unusual evolution for it comes from two former streets Pynel Street and Orliue Street which, in turn, are named from former residents.
One of the town's best known sons is remembered by Blake Street. Robert Blake was born in Bridgwater in August 1598, the eldest of twelve sons he was educated before carrying on his father business. Blake's first 40 years are quite unremarkable, indeed surprisingly so considering what he achieved afterwards. In 1640 he entered parliament, representing his home town. During the Civil War he served under Popham, securing decisive victories against Prince Maurice at Lyme in 1644, followed by a major turning point in the war with victory at Taunton after a battle which lasted a year. In 1649 he was given command of the fleet, winning naval engagements against isolated Royalist strongholds in Scilly and Jersey, defeated the Dutch, routed pirates in Tunis and Algiers, and virtually eliminated the Spanish at Santa Cruz. It was when returning from that final victory when, on 7th August 1657 and in sight of Plymouth Harbour, Admiral Robert Blake died.

The Shrew in Shrewsbury

Last week I mentioned being invited to speak at the 14th Annual Wellington Literary Festival, which has now been confirmed for 20th October 2010, the venue to be announced. Of course I have already given some thought to this look at my book Shropshire Place Names and, as I throw it open to a Q&A session at the end, will try to anticipate the sort of questions I will be faced with.

Having spoken in Shropshire on the subject before, and been interviewed for a number of publications, I know exactly what the first question about Shropshire will be and it concerns the pronunciation of the county town. Shrewsbury - is it 'shrew' or 'shrow'? I have found if I give the answer directly those who disgree will continue to do so, hence I now answer the question with a question - How is the county pronounced?

Of course the answer is never in doubt that Shrop- rhymes with 'shop'. However this county name is, like so many others, taken from that of the county town. Warwickshire is from Warwick, Gloucestershire from Gloucester, Oxfordshire from Oxford, Worcestershire from Worcester and - which is less obvious - Shropshire from Shrewsbury. Examinging the first element of both we find Old English or Saxon scrobb meaning 'scrubland'. Note this is pronounced as in 'shrub' so as to be 'shrobe'. The town name is scrobb burh or 'the fortified place in scrubland', however sometime in the past the first element has been mistaken for a personal name, hence the addition of a seemingly possessive 's' and the loss of the soft consonant sound 'bb' - not surprising as it is very difficult to say 'shrobesberry' and thus it has become 'sh-rows-berry'. Pronunciation as 'shrew' is only because the name is spelled as 'shrew' and is a comparatively modern occurrence.

Hence the county is therefore Shrewsbury-shire or, with the dropping of burh, from scrobb scir with the latter meaning 'the meeting place'. To find 'p' instead of 'b' is perfectly reasonable and thus the first part of the county name should not rhyme with 'shop' but be 'shrope-shire'.

Will this put an end to any idea of the 'shrew' pronunciation of Shrewsbury? Not a chance.