A Complete Suit of Armour

Yesterday, wearing my hat as a part of Tamworth Literary Festival, I had the pleasure of meeting a number of successful authors. Among them was Christina Smee, author of The Rose of Middleham. She is also the mother of Dominic Smee, who was featured in Channel 4's recreation of Richard III and who is currently raising money to reproduce the king's suit of armour. At Tamworth Literary Festival we are planning a one-off event later this year to allow by Christina and Dominic to show the people of Tamworth to hear their remarkable story.

On hearing the various parts of the suit of armour mentioned, and being fascinated by the development of words, I soon began looking at the etymologies of some of the many terms used for parts of a suit of armour, and beginning with .....

Armour, and obviously the parts going to make it, as we most commonly perceive it was brought to England by the Normans. The earliest surviving use in English dates from 1297, coming from the Old French amure and derived from the Latin armatura meaning 'arms and/or equipment' and from the root armare 'arms or gear'. Note it is only in recent times we have used 'suit of armour', for most of its life it has simply been 'armour'.

Armet is a bowl-shaped helmet covering the entire head and does not have a visor, but folding panels at the cheeks. Clearly the term shares its etymology with the word 'armour'.

Aventail is a piece of chainmail attached to the skull of the helmet covering the neck, throat and shoulders. It comes from the Old French esventail meaning 'air hole'.

Baldric, which is undoubtedly going to prove the most popular in this list, is a belt worn over the shoulder and thus little surprise to find it is from the Old French baldre meaning 'shoulder belt' and a variation on the original Latin balteus meaning 'belt'.

Brassard, that part protecting the arm, comes from Old French bras ard meaning literally 'arm hard'.

Breastplate is clearly a combination of two monosyllablic words. Thus taking each in turn we find the earliest root of 'breast' to be the Proto-Indo-European bhreus meaning 'to swell, sprout'. Oddly 'plate' is a much more recent word - as a table utensil unknown until the 15th century - and originally used to mean anything flat, it comes from the Greek platys 'flat, broad'.

Burgonet is another bowl-shaped helmet but with the distinctive crest. Despite this only being from the 16th century the origins are not clear, however this could be a feminine version of bourgignot and thus 'the Burgundian'.

Coif is the balaclava-like hood of mail, this from Old French coife and other contemporary terms sharing a meaning of 'cap'.

Cuirass is a breastplate, although also used to describe both breast and back plates together. It comes from Latin coriacea vestis 'garment of leather' and earlier from corium 'leather' or 'hide'.

Helm and helmet have idential origins, both ultimately from Proto-Indo-European kel meaning 'to cover, hide'.

Cervelliere is derived from Old French cervel meaning 'brain, head' and is the steel cap worn under the helm.

Bassinet is more headwear and easily seen as coming from the same source as 'basin' and ultimately from bacca 'water vessel'.

Culet is the skirt-like strips of metal covering the buttocks and derived from Old French cul 'bottom' and ultimately from Latin culus 'arse'.

Gauntlet, most often used today as part of a phrase meaning a challenge, is from Proto-Germanic wantuz 'glove'.

Gorget is the name given to the steel collar attached to the top of the breast and back plates. It is derived from Latin collare 'necklace band', earlier kwol-o 'neck' and itself from the root kwel 'move about, turn'.

Hauberk, also recorded as Haubergeon, is a coat of mail which lengthened over the centuries until it came to the knee. Possibly the name tells us the earliest forms had no sleeves, thus really a cape of mail, as the name shares an origin with the previous entry where Proto-Germanic hwals and Proto-Indo-European kwolso referred to the 'neck'.

Tuille are the bands hanging from the breastplate to protect the top of the legs. Here the origins are Old French teuille and Latin tegula meaning 'tile'.

Vambrace is the forearm guard and means just that - avant 'before' and bras 'an arm'.

Visor is from Old French visere and from vis or 'face'. Both are derived from Latin videre 'to see'.

Ethiopia Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Ethiopia and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

Addis Ababa is easily translated from the Amharic addis abeba or 'new flower'. This is not a place where some striking fauna once grew, here the reference is to natural springs.

Dire Dawa is another translation from Amharic and means 'the place of remedy'.

Bahir Dar translates from the Amharic for 'sea shore'.

Arba Minch comes from the Amharic for 'forty springs'.

Debre Marqos is named after its principal church, dedicated to St Mark.

Debre Tabor takes its name from Mount Tabor, the hemispherical hill in an otherwise flat area having a name describing its shape.

Kibre Mengist takes its name from the Amharic for 'glory of the state'.

Tepi is traditionally held to be named after a Majangr man who managed a hive of bees found in a large tree in the marketplace.

Addis Zemen takes us back to the Amharic tongue and a meaning of 'new era'.

Gelemso at last provides us with a little more to say other than the simplest translation. It is thought this comes from the Oromo tongue, where galma Usso means 'the hall of Usso'. This referred to the mosque named after Usso, who came here to preach Islam to the indigenous people who called him ima gossa or 'the adopted son'.

Adis Alem is from Amharic meaning 'new world'.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Estonia Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Estonia and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

Tallinn is a comparatively modern name. While it is generally accepted this is of Estonian origins, the meaning is somewhat uncertain with the most popular explanation being 'the castle of the Danes' from Taani-linna. Alternatively this could prove to be tali-linna 'winter castle' or talu-linna 'farmstead at the castle'. Prior to the arrival of the Danes in 1219, this had been known as Revala, the name of the surrounding area and a variation on the Icelandic Raphael. Up to the 13th century the place had been called Lindanisa, this from the mythical Linda, wife of Kalev and mother of Kalevipoeg. She is said to have carried rocks to cover the last resting place of her husband which is today known as Toompea Hill. Earlier still the place was known as Quri and also from the name of Kalev.

Tartu comes from Taara, a god in Estonian mythology often depicted as an aurochs.

Narva is a city and an ancient culture named after the River Narva, itself unclear but possibly from the Vepsian word narva meaning either 'waterfall' or 'stream'.

Kuressa had historically been known as Arensburg, where Middle High German aar 'eagle, raptor' precedes burh or 'fortification'. The present name began as the town surrounding said fortification. Kuressaarelinn referring to the linn or 'town' at Kuressaare, itself the ancient name of Saaremaa island - this leaving no doubts as to its meaning when defined as 'the island land island'.. For a short time in the latter half of the 20th century the place became known as Kingissepp after the Bolshevik Viktor Kingissell.

Haapsalu is simply an Estonian description of the place when first settled - haab salu meaning 'grove of aspen trees'.

Paide is known in German as Wittenstein meaning 'white stone', this also seen in the Latin translation of Albus Lapis. The modern name is first seen in 1564 when Paida came from paas meaning 'limestone'. These all refer to the limestone used to construct Paide Castle.

Kivioli takes its name from its principal industry, the mining of oil shale - the name translates to 'stone oil'.

Polva is undoubtedly derived from the Estonian word polv meaning 'knee', although just how this relates to the place is unknown.

Elva takes its name from the Elva River, itself with the literal meaning 'river'.

Sindi derives its name from Clauss Zindt, mayor of Parnu in 1565 who founded a manor here.

Narva-Joesuu has a name meaning 'mouth of the Narva', the river name meaning 'waterfall' or 'stream' as discussed above.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Eritrea Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Eritrea and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

Asmara is known locally as Asmera meaning 'the four made them unite'. These four are feminine and refer to the women from four clans who, tired of the fighting, forced the Gheza Gurtom, Gheza Shelele, the Gheza Serenser and Gheze Asmae to unite. The modern westernised version came from European colonial times.

Keren is something of a mystery, it possibly shares a root with Semetic tongues and thus could mean 'shine' or 'ray of light' and thus describe a place being notably brighter than its surroundings and Keren is on high ground.

Teseney or Tessenei originally came from Tigre meaning 'let it be nice to dwell'. During the era of Italian colonization it was known as the Village of Gasperini, taking the name of the Italian governor of Eritrea.

Mendefera is almost my favourite Eritrean place name. It is named after the hill in the centre which dominates the area and has a name meaning 'no one dared'. During colonial days this proved to be the stronghold for those fighting for independence from the Italians.

Assab is so close to the Ethiopic Azab it seems unlikely to mean anything other than 'south'.

Massawa beats Mendefera as my favourite name here. With the delightful meaning of 'to shout loudly' the most popular explanation for this tells how a fisherman became stranded on a nearby inhabited island when caught in a storm. He discovered by shouting loudly he could be heard on the other side of the island and was thus rescued, this then became known as Massawa or 'to shout loudly'.

Senafe was formerly known as Hakir. Traditionally this was changed when one Abdullah arrived here from Sana'a in Yemen. When he married he is held to have said Sana-fen, the Arabic for 'where is Sana'a' and the name was born.

Adi Keyh is an Arabic name meaning simply 'red village'.

Irafayle is a tiny fishing village with the strange origin of 'place of elephants', although there is little chance of spotting a pachyderm here today.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Equatorial Guinea Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Equatorial Guinea and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

Malabo is the current capital city and the oldest of the nation's cities. Found on the island of Bioko, itself discovered by Portuguese navigator Fernao do Po in 1507, who named it Formosa Flora or 'beautiful flower' but soon after became known after its discoverer, albeit slightly corrupted to Fernando Poo. Subsequent Spanish attempts to settle permanently failed and when the British Captain Nelly found the place abandoned in 1821, it led to the colony founded by Captain William Fitzwilliam Owen. He named the settlement Port Clarence, honouring the Duke of Clarence who later became William IV. However to the indigenous Bubis people if was Ripoto or 'place of the foreigners'. By 1855, now back under Spanish control, the name changed to Santa Isabel after Queen Isabel II. Not until 1973 did this become Malabo, this to honour another ruler, one Malabo Lopelo Melaka, the last Bubi king.

Bata is the former capital city and still the largest by population, albeit marginally. Bata's origins are unclear but may derive from the Spanish bata meaning 'gown', although just what is being described is unknown.

Bioko, the island where European settlement all began, takes its name from the Bubis people. This name if from pre-colonial days and is not how they knew themselves, it is thought to mean simply 'man' as in 'male'. However the locals know the island as Otcho in the Bube tongue.

Niefang represents the eastern limit of the area occupied by the Fang tribe, hence its name meaning 'the limit of the Fang'. Note those of the tribe living to the west in the coastal region were known as Playeros or 'beach people' by the Spanish.

Annobon - also seen as Annabon, Anabon, Anno Bom, Annabona - is derived from Ano Bom, literally 'good year' having been discovered by the Portuguese on New Year's Day 1473.

Moka, also given as Moca, is named after the Bubi king Mookata or King Moka who reigned from 1835 to 1845 and again from 1875 to 1898.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Lost Letters of the English Alphabet

I spend a lot of time reading old documents. As anyone who has done such will tell you, this is not something which comes easily. Not only is the handwriting often abysmal but these also contain letters we have long since abandoned. This turned my thoughts to wondering where these letters originated and why they fell by the wayside leaving just the 26 letters of the alphabet taught from our very first day in school (and often before).

Our modern alphabet uses the symbols, for that what letters really are, used in Latin. Yet the English language came from the Germanic group, Old English brought here by the Saxons after the Roman Empire abandoned our islands. This early tongue used a runic alphabet, as did the closely related Old Scandinavian who knew the variants as futhark, with the latter name coming from the first six letters of their alphabet.

I have attempted to put these in alphabetical order, using the modern equivalents as a guide. However this proved difficult with several as there are no comparable equivalents, hence this is an approximation of alphabetical order.

Ash is probably familiar to many, it is still pronounced as 'eye'.

Tironian ond is named after the Roman Tiro who invented a shorthand system where 'ond' represented 'and'.

Yogh hardly has a modern equivalent, although perhaps the best way to hear it is in the 'ch' pronunciation as in the name of composer Bach.

Insular G may not be the catchiest of names for a letter, hence perhaps the reason it is sometimes called 'Irish G', it was used as well as yogh until eventually replaced by same.

Eng was invented in 1619 by scribe Alexander Gill and intended to replace the 'ng' at the end of words.

Ethel was a letter, one which should be seen as the 'oe' equal of ash.

Long s will be familiar to us all as the 's' in the middle of words, rarely found at the beginning or end of words. In truth it is not strictly a different letter but simply a different way of writing 's'.

Thorn was replaced by the sound 'th' and pronounced exactly the same. It fell out of use due to its similarity to the 'y'. It is the harder pronunciation of 'th', as in 'this', 'that', 'the' and 'other'.

That is not a word here but a letter. Once used much less than thorn it outlived same and can still be found in churches and religious texts.

Eth is the softer pronunciation of 'th', such as in 'thick' and 'thin'. It fell out of use quite early, replaced by thorn.

Wynn was the equalivalent of the modern 'w'. The 'w' is an odd letter because the way we say the letter is actually wrong - it should be 'double v' and not 'double u'. Even stranger the Latin, from where we get the letter, did not have a 'u' but a 'v', albeit the latter being used as the vowel.

Ampersand is still in use, indeed text messaging has increased its popularity to a point where it is undoubtedly used more often and by more people than ever before. While today we use it as an abbreviation, it was once considered a letter in its own right and even placed at position 27 in the alphabet as recently as the 19th century.

It does strike me that many of these letters would come in extremely useful if they were included in the piles of letters dished out by Rachel Riley on Coundown. It might have helped the chap on the right to win more games.

El Salvador Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time El Salvador and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

San Salvador has no surprises, this translating as the 'Holy Saviour'.

Apopa is a delicious description of this area and describes 'a place with mist'.

Antiguo Cuscatlan, known locally as simply Antiguo, derives its first element from the Spanish for 'old' and the latter from the indigenous Nahuat for 'jewelled city'.

Metapan is a Nahuatl name meaning 'river of the maguey',

San Miguel is another of Spanish origin, here the name originally being San Miguel de la Frontera and translating as 'Saint Michael of the Frontier'.

Santa Tecla was founded by the Spanish as Nueva San Salvador or 'new Holy Saviour' after the capital had been destroyed by an earthquake in 1854. In 2003 the name returned to Santa Tecla, the latter the original name of this region when settled by the Spanish, Saint Thecla an early Christian saint said to have been a follower of Saint Paul two thousand years ago.

Berlin is, somewhat predictably, a name transferred from the more famous example in Germany - and if you want to know the toponomy of the German city look back at this earlier post.

Ataco is an indigenous Nahuatl word meaning 'high place of springs', obviously a sensible place to found a settlement as it has a source of fresh water, would be above the flood plain, and easy to defend.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.