Roman Towns in Britain

Many will know how place names ending in -cester or -chester show they were former Roman towns. Until comparatively recently this was attributed to the Romans themselves, where the Latin castra or 'fort' had produced the name. Yet records show these settlements were not known as -cesters or -chesters until after the Romans had left. Further proof of a different origin comes in the form of Old English, the language of the Anglo-Saxons, where caester meant very specifically 'a former Roman stronghold'. Thus could not have been named until after the Romans departure because of (a) the specific meaning and (b) the language was not known in Britain until after the Romans had left.

The following list of Roman towns give the modern name and that used by the Romans, along with a definition wherever possible.

Bath is an Old English name, this clearly referring to 'the Roman baths'. The Romans referred to the place as Aquae Sulis, this 'the waters of Sulis'. The place was already a shrine to the Celtic goddess Sulis, the Romans seeing similarities with their goddess Minerva and always keen to adopt as many gods as possible (one can never have too many gods), a goddess perceived as the life-giving mother goddess. Further information on Bath and nearby place names can be found in my Somerset Place Names.

Canterbury speaks of itself as 'the stronghold of the people of Kent'. To the Romans it was Durovernum Cantiacorum, here the Romans referred to the former British tribe, the Cantiaci, residing at Durou ernon or 'stronghold by the alder grove'. All this is covered in my book East Kent Place Names.

Carlisle is a an old British name meaning 'the (place) of a man called Luguvalos'. The Celtic term cair added to the personal name, much as the Romans did when they called this place Luguvallum. Further information in my Cumbria Place Names.

Chelmsford comes from 'the ford of a man called Ceolmaer', while the Romans knew this as Caesaromagus or 'the market place of Caesar'. See my Essex Place Names.

for further information. Chester simply uses the basic Old English caester or 'former Roman stronghold' with no additions. For the Romans this was Deva Victrix, the Latin referring to the goddess who also gave a name to the River Dee, with Viictrix simply meaning 'victorious' and all seen in Cheshire Place Names.

Cirencester tells us it was 'the former Roman stronghold known as Corinion, the origin of which is uncertain but may share an origin with the River Churn in ultimately referring to a tribe known as the Cornovii. It is known several tribes throughout the land were known as such, the meaning is unclear but could mean 'the people of the horn' and refer to the shape of the land they occupied. These and more in Gloucestershire Place Names by, of course, me!

Colchester is 'the former Roman stronghold on the Colne', Camulodunum to the Romans who knew this as 'the stronghold of the Camulos' a Celtic deity seen as the equivalent of the Roman Mars with more information in my Essex Place Names.

Doncaster is 'the former Roman stronghold on the River Don', a British river name meaning simply 'water'. To the Romans this was Danum for the same reason, with information on the place in my South Yorkshire Place Names and on the river name in English River Names by the same author.

Dover, or Dubris to the Romans, is found in my East Kent Place Names where you will discover both originate in the British name for the River Dour, where dubras simply meant 'water'.

Exeter also owes its present name to the river on which it stands, the present name speaking of 'the former Roman stronghold on the Exe' with the river name again meaning simply 'water', while the Roman name of Isca Dumnoniorum describes the river as 'full of fish' being where the people known as the Dumnonians or 'people of the vales'. You can find more information on this and neighbouring place names in my South Devon Place Names.

Gloucester, which is the county town found in Gloucestershire Place Names, has the modern name referring to 'the former Roman stronghold called Glevum, which is exactly what the Roman name was for the Celtic settlement named as the 'bright place'.

Lancaster and the Roman name of Lunecastrum share an origin in the river on which the fortification stands - Oold English caester and Latin castrum both refer to the Roman fortification, albeit the former in the past tense. The river name, as discussed in my English River Names, comes from a British term meaning 'healthy, pure', while the Lancashire town can be found in Lancashire Place Names.

Leicester speaks of itself as 'the former Roman stronghold of the Ligore, a tribal name of unknown origins. The Romans knew the place as Ratae Coritanorum, the first element meaning 'ramparts' and the latter the tribal name of Corieltauvians, again of unknown origins as is discussed in my Leicestershire Place Names.

Lincoln, as found in my Lincolnshire Place Names, was known to the Romans as Lindum Colonia was known as the linduo colonia or 'the pool of the Roman colony (for retired legionaries)'.

London is often said to be 'the place of a man called Londinos', but just who that person was is unknown, as was it to the Romans whose form of Londinium shares an origin but was equally uncertain. A deeper look into the alternative meanings of the name is found in my Middlesex Place Names.

Manchester is traditionally a city of Lancashire, and is therefore covered by my Lancashire Place Names where we see 'the former Roman stronghold near the mamm or breast-shaped hill' was known as Mancunium by the Romans, a name of identical meaning.

Newcastle speaks for itself, although note this castle is 'new' which tells us it replaced an earlier feature. To the Romans this was Pons Aelius, this meaning 'the bridge of Aelius', this the clan or family name of the Emperor Hadrian. More information can be found in my Northumberland Place Names.

Pevensey is an Old English name meaning 'the river of a man called Pefen'. To the Romans this was Anderitum which, as discussed in my East Sussex Place Names, simply means 'the great ford'.

Rochester, found in my West Kent Place Names, is 'the former Roman stronghold called Hrofi'. This is not a personal name but badly corrupted form of the earlier name of Durobrivis, the Roman version Durobrivae, both meaning 'the walled town with bridges'.

St Albans, as found in my Hertfordshire Place Names, is named as 'the holy place of St Alban', this the saint martyred here in AD 209. Earlier this had been Verulamium, this possibly referring to 'the tribe of the broad hand'..

Salisbury refers to itself as 'the stronghold at Sorvio', hence for the Romans this was Sorviodunum. As discussed in my Wiltshire Place Names, the etymological trail ends here.

Winchester refers to itself as 'the former Roman stronghold called Venta' and known as Venta Belgarum to the Romans. Here the venta or 'town' was associatd with the tribe known as the Belgae, who not only gave their name to modern Belgium but also gave us a series of Brythonic and Gaulish derived words fundamentally telling us they had a reputaion for being angry. Find out more in Hampshire Place Names.

Worcester or 'the former Roman stronghold of the Weogora is found in my Worcestershire Place Names.Here the name of the tribe is shown to come from 'the people of the winding river', while the Roman name of Wigornia has identical origins.

Wroxeter, found in my Shropshire Place Names, speaks of 'the Roman stronghold of the Uriconio. Known to the Romans as Virconium, both these early names have given us the modern name of Wrekin and derived from a personal name with a root meaning 'man wolf'..

Yarmouth, as discussed in my Isle of Wight Place Names, stands at the 'gravelly or muddy estuary'. To the Romans this was Magna Gernemutha, the same meaning but with the addition of magna or 'great'.

York, famously known to the Romans as Eboracum, will be covered in my forthcoming North Yorkshire Place Names, where the ancient Celtic name of Eborus is shown to refer to 'the place of the yew trees'.

Northumberland Place Names - Hexham

Last time I offered a taster of my Durham Place Names, due out this autumn. Publication will coincide with Northumberland Place Names and, as previously, offer a quick glimpse of this release. I have chosen the lovely town of Hexham, as it is the one place which stands out when recalling my days researching and photographing.

Hexham

A place name found as Hagustaldes in 685, this is Old English hagustald ham and 'the homestead of the warrior'.

The street names of Hexham seem to have changed more than most towns of its size. Perhaps this is due to the topography, where much of the original settlement sits atop the escarpment which naturally limits the expansion and means necessary improvements and alterations inevitably wipe away something of the earlier town. Examining both current and earlier names provides a glimpse into the later history of a town or village.

What is now Robbs Car Park was previously Alma Court which, along with Alma Place, also lost, were named from an inn which had taken the name of a battle fought in the Crimea. Here, on September 20th 1854, the first engagement of the war saw a combined Anglo-French force of more than 60,000 defeat little more than half that number of the Russian army. The battle took the name of the River Alma, in turn named from the Tatar word for ‘apple’. Eastgate, literally the ‘eastern route into the place’, was previously Bondgate from bondigata and telling us this road led past ‘the land of the bondsmen’ or peasant farmers.

What was Carlisle Road has become renamed in several places, in particular Shaftoe Leazes. This is found in several places in this part of the country and always describes a long strip as ‘the shaft-shaped ridge of land’. Fore Street speaks of itself as ‘the front entrance’ and should be understood as the main entry point, there once being a Back Lane, too. Pudding Mews, previously Golden Lion Lane, was probably named for the sticky morass of which the road was made. While this is often seen as mud, it could easily have been sewage or, particularly considering the use of ‘pudding’, the intestines of slaughtered animals. A similar evolution is seen in what was Half Moon Yard, again named after a pub, becoming the self-explanatory Slaughter Houses.

St Hilda’s Road certainly fits with the nearby names, where St George’s Road, St Andrew’s Road, St Wilfrid’s Road and St Cuthbert’s Road link to Priestlands Crescent, Priestlands Avenue, and Priestlands Road. However St Hilda’s Road was previously known as Hilda Street which may have been named from a resident rather than the saint. Intake, earlier given as Intack, is an early field name pointing to ‘the land recently enclosed for farming’. Merry Leazes was probably a deliberate change, for the modern suggests something pleasant while the earlier Mirrey from miry tells us it was known for being muddy.

From the Saxon name Eardwulf comes shortened form seen in Ardley as 'the woodland clearing of a man called Earda'. Aydon Shiels would have begun as 'the sheds or huts associated with a man called Ealdwine'. Telling us it was once known as 'the row (of dwellings) associated with a man called Bacga', the hamlet is now marked on the map as Bagraw. Coastley has nothing to do with the shoreline, this is 'the leah or woodland clearing of a man called Cocc'.

Dipton comes from deop dene 'the deep valley'. Dotland features an Old Scandinavian personal name in 'the cultivated land of a man called Dot'. Eshells features the suffix sheles, here either follow a personal name in 'the shed of a man called Asketin' or, if the first element is Old Scandinavian eski, 'the shed by the ash trees'.

Hackford belongs to that group of places where, simply be defining the name, we see an image of the place as it appeared in Saxon times. Here the first element is heck, a regional variation on haecc or 'hatch gate'. This is understood to refer to a gate downstream from the ford, one which prevented animals from either straying or being carried downstream when the river was in spate.

Greenridge is easily seen as 'the grassy ridge of land'. Ham Burn is simply enough, from ham burna it describes 'the stream by a homestead'. Harwood Shiel speaks of 'the summer pasture by the boundary wood'. Hotley was Holtolaye in 1296, this referring to 'the leah or woodland clearing of a man called Holte'. Langhope is from Old English lang hop 'the long enclosed valley'.

Found as Lilleswrth in 1233 and as Lilleswude in 1663, this is probably 'the woodland of a man named Lilla', although that early record does seem to be describing 'the worth or enclosure of a man called Lilla'. Recorded as Linelis in 1251, Linnolds is 'the farm of a man called Linnel', itself a pet form of Linbeald. Nubbock was once known as Yokesley, a name meaning 'the woodland clearing of someone called Yoke'. This is not a true personal name but comes from dialect yoke, used to describe a 'spouse or bedfellow' and genderless. First seen as Nobbock-scheles in 1479, Nubbock quickly lost its suffix leaving a name which has defied all attempts to define it.

Riddlehamhope, seen as Redeleme in 1214 and Ridlam in 1338, here is 'the homestead of the ridded or cleared valley'. Rowley is an Old English name from ruh leah meaning 'the rough woodland clearing'. The stream known as the Rowley Burn takes its name from the place. A place name of Steel comes from the word steel, a term once used by Scots dialect speakers to refer to 'a long line of rocks projecting into the sea'. Yarridge is recorded as Jernerig in 1232 and Yarwrigg in 1298, a name from Old English gearwe hrycg 'the ridge where yarrow grass grows'.

The Station Inn was named to advertise refreshment for travellers arriving on the (then) new mode of transport. Similarly the Globe conveys the message that this place will open its doors to all.

Doubtless salmon would have been served at the Salmon Inn, which means this is an advertisement for what was on offer. Another advert is seen in the Tap and Spile, the two parts hammered into a wooden barrel to enable easy dispensing of the contents. The tap is clear, a very simple version of the modern household tap, the spile is less clear. Anyone who attempts to pour any liquid from a container will know if no allowance is made to allow air to enter and replace the volume of liquid drawn off causes a bubble to enter and the steady flow is interrupted, often with messy results. Hence the spile was hammered into the top of the barrel and removed to encourage a nice steady flow of the contents through the open tap, then replaced when the tap was closed.

Location was in mind when naming the Shiregate public house, the Dipton Mill Inn, and the Old Tannery. However the Heart of England pub is clearly many miles from the centre of the country, indeed the name has nothing to do with location but can be found at nearby Hexham Racecourse, where the most famous race is the Heart of All England Steeplechase and the Heart of All England Cup presented to the winner. Traditionally this recalls the time when James VI of Scotland rode south to become James I of England and thus unite the two kingdoms. It is said he reached Hexham and announced: "Verily this is the heart of all England".

Other names include the Hare and Hounds, a reminder of the once popular sport of hare coursing. The Grapes, an image associated with the production of wines. The Coach and Horses shows this was a staging post for the major means of land transport in times before the railways. The Rose and Crown is a patriotic name, rose for the nation and the crown its monarch. The Kings Head carries an image of Charles II, a reference to 1660 and the Restoration of the Monarchy. Common as the animal lends itself readily to anthropomorphisation, the Fox Inn is as popular as ever.

Durham Place Names – Hartlepool

It may still be summer but currently the weather is decidedly autumnal. For me autumn, at least on a professional note, means the publication of a new book. Not aware of the exact date yet but offer a sample to whet the appetite.

Hartlepool

A place listed as Herterpol around the end of the twelfth century, this name comes from Old English heorot eg pol and describes 'the pool or bay near the peninsula frequented by stags'.

Street names begin with Alma Street, named after the battle which was fought on 20th September 1854, considered the first battle of the Crimean War it is often seen as a pub name. Baltic Street was named for it being associated with those principally trading with the Baltic provinces of Estonia, Livonia and Courland. Cleveland Street commemorates the Marquis of Cleveland, who served as mayor in 1831. Another mayor was William Vollum, a ship owner who served five terms as mayor and who had Vollum Road named after him. Prissick Street was named in 1841 to mark the work of philanthropists Henry and Elizabeth Prissick. Stripe is an old street name, taken from a field name referring to a long, narrow strip of land.

The hamlet of Brierton appeared as Brerton and Brereton in the fourteenth century, while quite recently the name is recorded with the alternative spelling of Brearton. The name is of Old English origin in braer tun 'the farmstead of the brambles'. Stranton comes from Old English strand tun 'the place on the shore'. Throston has been recorded since the fourteenth century, although 'the farmstead of a man called Thor' will have existed since shortly after Roman times. Trickley is derived from a little used English word trickle describing 'the farm of sheep dung'.

On the coast is the name of Eden, seen as Geodene, Iodene and Yoden in early records, this speaks of 'the valley of Goda'. From naes byht comes the name of Nesbitt and describes 'the bend at the headland'. Found as Ovetun in the twelfth century, the name of Owton is from a very common personal name and refers to 'the farmstead of a man called Offa or Ofa'.

Seaton Carew is found as Ceattun, Setona, Seton Carrowe, and Seton Karrow between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Here Old English sae tun refers to 'the farmstead on the sea'. The addition is seen in the name of former tenant Petrus Carou, whose surname appears to be a nickname rather than a place name as there are no references as 'de Carou'. Another Old English name is Throston, a name speaking of 'the tun or farmstead of a man called Thurstan'. Inscar Point is a coastal feature derived from Middle English sker 'a rocky cliff', while further along the coast we find Maiden Bower, traditionally where a young woman was flung to her death on the rocks by her violent lover. Possibly describing 'the farmstead of a man called Neale', Nelson is first seen as Nelestune in 1196.

Origins of English Place Names

This week saw me complete negotiations for more books on the origins of place names. These, together with previously released volumes, mean I will have penned and published something on every English county by the time the last of these is released by the summer of 2014. I make no apologies for taking this opportunity to define the names of the counties and include a shameless plug for each volume and include a link to each. The list appears in the same chronological order these books were and/or wiil be released.

My first book was Staffordshire Place Names in 1996. The county, as with so many names, simply adds Old English scir to the name of the county town. The Saxon ‘shire’ was an administrative region, created when they realised something was required between the hundred and the nation. When it comes to Stafford, we see two elements where staeth ford speaks of ‘the river crossing near the landing place’. It stands to reason the landing place would have been at the highest navigable point upstream, a place which would also have been shallow enough to ford. I should add that while this book is now out of print, there will be an e-book version out within the next few months.

Next came Warwickshire Place Names which is already available as an e-book. Another ‘shire’ attached to the name of the county town. Here we see Warwick from Old English waering wic or ‘the dwellings at the weir’.

Examining Worcestershire Place Names we see another scir or ‘administrative district’, this time following the city of Worcester, named as ‘the Roman stronghold of the Weogora tribe’. These Celtic peoples are thought to have been named as ‘the dwellers at the winding river’.

On to Derbyshire Place Names and the city of Derby. Here another scir with Old Scandinavian deor by telling of ‘the farmstead where deer are found’.

In Leicestershire and Rutland Place Names two counties were covered. With Leicester we see another Celtic tribe named. Although ‘the Roman stronghold of the people called Ligore’, again with scir, features a tribal name which has never been understood. In Rutland we have a place name which was adopted as the county name, this referring to ‘the estate of a man called Rota’.

South to yet another scir and Oxfordshire Place Names with the city of spires being named from far humbler beginnings, this ‘the ford used by oxen’.

My next volume was Shropshire Place Names and a county town where pronunciation will never be agreed, at least not by Salopians. So we will ignore Shrewsbury and define Shropshire and find another scir or ‘administrative district’. The first element comes from Old English scrob meaning ‘scrubland’, thus correctly it should be Shrobshire, although the question of where this ‘scrubland’ was found remains. The answer is the county town, for Shrewsbury began as scrob’s-bury and shows why it should be pronounced Shro- and not read as Shrew- for it is the spelling of Shrewsbury which is in error and as a wise professor once told me, no name was ever mispronounced before the people could read. I am already aware the ‘correct’ pronunciation is becoming less popular and already I am wondering when the ‘incorrect’ form will become the accepted version.

No such problems when tackling Nottinghamshire Place Names where this scir suffixes the city named as ‘the homestead of the family or followers of a man named Snot’. Whilst I’m sure the residents would not appreciate the initial ‘S’ being reinstalled, they might be interested to learn the name refers to Snot’s followers, not Snot himself. Thus it is likely he was never here and this settlement may well have been named posthumously.

With Hampshire Place Names the county town is Southampton, this recorded simply as Hamtun in 825 and telling of ‘the farmstead of the hemmed-in land or promontory’. The question of why ‘south’ was always answered with Northampton being on the other end of a ancient trade route. While there may have been a regular supply of goods along a road, this is not the correct Northampton, that is in Hampshire although, for reasons nobody has ever understood, that suddenly changed the suffix and is today known as Northington.

Sharing a suffix with other Roman strongholds, the name which resulted in Gloucestershire Place Names comes from ‘the Roman stronghold called Glevum’, this a Celtic place name meaning ‘bright place’.

No scir for Dorset Place Names although it is derived from another major settlement within its borders. Today known as Dorchester, the county name simply an abbreviated version, telling of ‘the Roman stronghold known as Durnovaria’. As with the previous name this is a Celtic place name describing ‘place with large pebbles’.

Back to the suffix scir or ‘administrative district’ for Northamptonshire Place Names. As we have seen this has nothing to do with Southampton and does not share the same meaning. Here ‘the northern home farmstead’ distinguishes it from other ham tuns much closer to home.

No scir for Somerset Place Names and yet, like neighbouring Dorset, is based on a local place name. Here the county speaks of it being that of ‘the settlers around Somerton’, itself telling of its humble beginnings as ‘the farmstead used only in summer’.

The large county of Devon, covered in two volumes by firstly South Devon Place Names and the forthcoming 2014 release of North Devon Place Names, has no scir today but did originally. Here is ‘the administrative district of the Devonians or Dummonii’.

Another two volumes were released for the southeast county of Sussex, now officially split in two and covered by East Sussex Place Names andWest Sussex Place Names. As with the other counties sharing this suffix the reference is to the Saxons, here is ‘the territory of the south Saxons’ – now correctly, and rather confusingly, the east south Saxons and the west south Saxons.

Another scir is found in Herefordshire Place Names where we find ‘the administrative district of the ford capable of carrying an army’. Note the relevant part is ‘capable’, for Hereford does not tell us an army was marching back and forth but says it was of good size and solidly built.

With the county town of Chester leading to Cheshire Place Names, this is ‘the administrative district of the Roman stronghold’ from Old English caster scir.

With Buckinghamshire Place Names we see Old English inga hamm and a Saxon personal name speaking of ‘the administrative district of the hemmed-in land of the family or followers of a man called Bucca’.

North to the find Cambridgeshire Place Names and ‘the administrative district of the place at the bridge over the River Granta’ otherwise known as the Cam – this odd change is entirely down to Norman error.

Down south and another large county split into East Kent Place Names and West Kent Place Names. As a name, Kent has never really been understood. Clearly it is different from other counties and this is down to it once being a Saxon kingdom in its own right, although the name is certainly Celtic. Possibly this is ‘the coastal district’ but an origin of ‘land of the hosts or armies’ can also be seen.

Back to the scir for Bedfordshire Place Names and ‘the administrative district of the ford of a man called Beda’.

Another scir in the Home Counties and Hertfordshire Place Names where ‘the administrative district of the ford frequented by harts’ is the origin.

On the east coast is the large county covered by Lincolnshire Place Names where we find the Roman influence once more. Here the city dominated by its cathedral gives us ‘the administrative district of the Roman colony by the pool’. That ‘colony’ was for retired legionaires.

Publishing in early December 2013 Berkshire Place Names is an oddity in being a scir but without a town called ‘Berk’. Here the term describes the region as ‘the administrative district of the hilly place’, what we know as the Berkshire Downs.

Appearing in early 2014 Surrey Place Names is no scir but comes from Old English suther ge and tells of ‘the southern district’.

Another early 2014 release is Essex Place Names which, as with Sussex, speaks of itself as ‘the territory of the East Saxons’.

Set for the spring of 2014 Middlesex Place Names covers ‘the territory of the middle Saxons’.

Another scir and Lancashire Place Names will be out early next year. Here the basis is the town of Lancaster, thus this ‘the administrative district of the Roman stronghold on the River Lune’ – where the river name is understood as ‘healthy, pure’.

Spring 2014 will see Cumbria Place Names which is a modern county name based on an eighth century record speaking of ‘the territory of the Cymry or Cumbrian Britons’.

The Scilly Isles are covered in the 2014 release of Cornwall Place Names. As with the previous name, this refers to the native Celtic peoples in ‘the territory of the Cornovii tribes’.

Another new county in a 2014 release is Isle of Wight Place Names where the island, so often said to refer to the ‘white’ chalk lands, is from a Celtic word speaking of ‘the place of the division’, that the two channels between here and the mainland known as the Solent. Note the name Solent has never been understood, although it has been given to the river which eroded this valley in the millennia before our islands were severed from mainland Europe with the rising of sea level at the end of the last Ice Age.

Spring of 2014 will also see the release of County Durham Place Names where the word ‘county’ is added to differentiate between the city and the shire. Here is the dun holmr or ‘hill of drier land in the marsh’.

Also available in early 2014 is the neighbouring county covered by Northumberland Place Names and another scir in all but name. This former Saxon kingdom was much larger than the present county and it is that kingdom of ‘the territory of the Northhymbre’ or ‘those living north of the Humber’ which has led to the modern name.

Also publishing in May 2014 is Suffolk Place Names and ‘the territory of the southern people of the East Angles’.

Spring 2014 and Wiltshire Place Names and ‘the administrative disctive of Wilton’, the town itself ‘the farmstead near a spring or stream’.

In the summer of 2014 we will see four volumes for Yorkshire. The county town of the original county giving us ‘the administrative district of the yew tree estate’. Not only the vast area covered by the original county but the tremendous number of small settlements means one volume would be very heavy and very expensive. Eventually it was decided to combine the three ridings and three counties to produce four volumes entitled North Yorkshire Place Names, South Yorkshire Place Names, East Yorkshire Place Names, and West Yorkshire Place Names

Finally towards the end of 2014 Isle of Man Place Names will appear. True this is neither a scir nor a county but a place I wanted to write about and to examine its place names. The island’s name is thought to be derived from an early leader by the name of Manu, although traditionally this was said to be named after the fabled Irish sea deity Manannan mac Lir.

I would welcome any suggestions for themes or subjects, or even specific words to examine the origins, meanings and etymologies. I’d be delighted to hear from you.