Quiz Question

A little break from place names and a look at a controversial subject - hanging. At a quiz I'd heard the question "When was hanging abolished in the UK?" to which the answer was said to "It hasn't, it is still possible to be hanged for treason." Having sat in the quiz master's chair years ago I didn't argue the point, it's a tough enough job, but felt fairly certain it had been abolished before the end of the 20th century in the UK. Hence I did a little research.

One of the first 'facts' to come to light was how, at the beginning of the 19th century, there were no fewer than 222 capital crimes. While perfectly true this does not give a clear picture. Further back in history we find there were just 50 offences carrying the death penalty in 1688, the massive increase retrospectively seen as an attempt by the 'haves' to protect what they had from the 'have-nots'. A contemporary wrote of how "Men are not hanged for stealing horses, but that horses may not be stolen." This also explains some of what we would see as ludicrously severe punishments for crimes which today would probably not even incur as much as a caution.

Before condemning these times, it should also be noted that while 35,000 death sentences were handed down between 1770 and 1830, only 7,000 actually reached the gallows, the remainder having their sentence commuted, most often to transportation. Many of these trials on record clearly show the courts have deliberately under-valued the value of stolen goods in order to avoid a mandatory death sentence. There were also a number of reasons where the guilty to be considered unsuitable for the gallows and listed as "benefit of clergy, official pardons, pregnancy, performance of military or naval duty" and subject to what can best be described as 'creative interpretation'. Furthermore note that by the middle of the 18th century this had been reduced to just five.

During my research of my book Bloody British Histories: Stafford, I came across one of the most notorious murderers, William Palmer, the so-called Rugeley Poisoner, and also the sad story of Christina Collins. Both crimes ended in three men being sentenced to death by hanging, in both cases they were found guilty of killing another human being and many will still argue today this is a fitting punishment - while at least as many will argue against.

To answer the quiz question hanging officially ended in Britain on 27th of January 1999, although nobody will have been sentenced to such for the last three decades. Yet since the Saxons introduced hanging as a punishment in the 5th century a number of odd 'crimes' have incurred the death penalty, an (incomplete) list follows.

Murder (officially removed in 1969).
High treason (until 1999).
Capital murder (defined as murder committed in the course of theft; murder by shooting or explosion; murder while resisting arrest or during a prison escape; murder of a police or prison officer; two murders committed on different occasions - I have to say the latter seems pointless as one murder (see above) already carried the death penalty).
Attempted murder.
Petty treason.
Rape.
Arson in a naval dockyard (until 1971).
Espionage (until 1981).
Piracy (until 1981).
Sodomy.
Buggery.
Witchcraft.
Highway robbery.
Embezzling a master's goods.
Robbing churches.
Robbing a person in a dwelling house.
Rioting which caused serious damage to a church, house, barn or stable.
Shooting at someone.
Cutting someone.
Maiming someone.
Counterfeiting coin.
Forgery.
Arson of a dwelling house or of a barn with corn.
Shoplifting.
Picking pockets.
Stealing sheep, cattle, or horses.
Grand larceny (defined as the theft of anything valued at at least 12 pence, remember this was pre-decimalisation and equal to the modern 5p).
Destroying a turnpike.
Stealing from a rabbit warren.
Damaging forests and parks.
Cutting down an orchard.
To lie in wait with intent to put out an eye, disable a tongue or slit the nose (very specific and a result of Sir John Coventry having his nose slit by an assailant in Covcent Garden).
Being in the company of gypsies for one month.
Strong evidence of malice in a child aged 7–14 years of age (makes you wonder how any every survived long enough into adulthood to enact the law).
Blacking the face or using a disguise whilst committing a crime (a result of bands of poachers doing so following the South Sea Bubble collapse).
Sacrilege
Letter stealing
Returning from transportation (presumably without permission) although records show only 5% ever returned (again presumably after they had completed their sentence).
Stealing from a shipwreck.
A sailor or soldier begging without a licence.
Damaging Westminster Bridge.
Impersonating a Chelsea Pensioner.
Strong evidence of malice in children between 7 and 14 years (amazes me that any survived long enough into adulthood to bring in the law).
Writing a threatening letter.

This list is not intended to be in any order of ascending or descending severity.

Bolivia Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Benin and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

La Paz is, as any trivia buff will know, the world's highest capital city. Founded in 1548 by the Spanish Conquistadors as Nuestra Senora de La Paz, this meaning 'Our Lady of Peace', and built on the site of the earlier site of Laja.

Santa Cruz de la Sierra is by far the largest in terms of population. Another founded by the Spanish Conquistadors and named Santa Cruz de la Sierra or 'Holy Cross of the Hills' by Nuflo de Chaves in 1558.

Cochabamba, sometimes given as Quchapampa, gets its name from qucha 'lake' and pampa 'open plain'.

Oruro is named after the local tribe, the Uru-Uru.

Sucre was named to honour the victorious Don Antionio Jose de Sucre at the Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December 1824.

Tarija is traditionally held to be derived from one Francisco de Tarija, however it has been shown this name existed prior to the arrival of the Spanish and the name's origins remain a mystery.

Potosi is likewise uncertain and also has a traditional tale associated with its origins. The story tells of the year of 1462, when Huayna Capa, ruler of the Inca Empire, came to Potosi to view for himself the place where "Innumerable arrobas of silver had been taken" - arroba being a Spanish unit of weight approximating to some 25 pounds. He told his subjects how he had seen the hill was truly filled with veins of the precious metal and commanded them to remove every last piece. Yet just as they were about to remove the first of the ore the hill shook and a thunderous voice bellowed "Do not take the silver from this hill, it is destined for other masters." The workers returned to their king and told them of the 'noise' which, in their language, spoke of potocsi, later corrupted to potosi.

Trinidad should correctly be La Santisima Trinidad or 'the Most Holy Trinity'.

Yacuiba comes from the Guarani yaku-iba loosely translating as 'the watering hole of fowls'.

Colcapirhua comes from the Quechua words qolque 'money' and pirwua 'sky where corn is stored'.

Llallagua is the hispanicized version of Llallawa, an Aymara word meaning 'monstrous potato' and a reference to the double hill overshadowing the town.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Bhutan Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Benin and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

Thimphu is the largest city, although only having a population of 68,000, and the origins of its name are unclear. It is not recorded until the latter half of the 14th century. There is a traditional explanation, one coming from a written account of the travels of Jamyang Kuenga Senge (1314-47) and his meeting with Jagpa Melan, a deity local to the area now known as Thimphu. It is said Jagpa Melan dissolved before the man's eyes, becoming a part of the rock on which he stood. Thus the name of Thimphu means 'dissolving high ground' where thim 'dissolve' precedes phu 'high ground'.

Punakha was the capital city of Bhutan until 1955, when replaced by Thimphu, although it is still the official winter capital owing to its milder climate. This is how Punakha Dzong is usually referred to, although even that is an abbreviation of Pungtang Dechen Photrang Dzong meaning 'the palace of great happiness or bliss'. Said palace was built in the middle of the 17th century and still stands among on the banks of the river.

Trashigang, also given as Tashigang, derives its name from the Tshangia inhabitants of this eastern region of Bhutan and, in their Dzongkha language, means 'easterner'.

Wangdue Phodrang shares its name woth the district. Again the only explanation is a traditional one, said to have been given by Ngawang Namgyal who, when searching for a good site for a new dzong, discovered a boy playing near the river. The boy was known as Wangdi and he therefore named the site 'Wangdi's palace'.

Trongsa was founded with the building of the first temple in 1543 and named as 'the new village'.

Damphu as with Thimphu the suffix here is phu 'high ground' and this by a confluence of two rivers with dam meaning 'joining'.

Gasa is known locally as Tashi Thongmon, also the name of the dzong, and this the name of the local deity.

Jakar quite literally means 'white bird', a reminder of the tradition of the monastery being founded on the site where a white bird signalled to show where it should be built.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Benin Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Benin and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

Cotonou is named from the local Fon language where the name originally meant 'river of death', this being the Oueme River.

Porto-Novo is a name of Portuguese origin and describes 'the new port', although it has not been 'new' since renamed by them in the 16th century.

Parakou is a Dendi word meaning La ville de tout le monde, a reminder this had been French territory, indeed once known as French Dahomey, and refers to 'the city of everyone'. Incidentally the name of Dahomey is discussed under my earlier blog The Etymology of the Names of African Nations.

Bohicon is a modern form of the correct name of Gboxicon, literally meaning 'market sheep' and accurately describing the major commodity fuelling the economy of the city.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Belize Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Belize and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the the nation's namesake.

Belize City is the capital city of the district known as Belize although no longer the capital of the nation of Belize - it stands on a tributary of the Belize River. The nation was formerly known as British Honduras, when Belize was still the capital city. The name was first recorded in 1677, in the journal of a Domincan priest named Fray Jose Delgado, when speaking of the Rio Soyte (now known as the Sittee River), Rio Xibum (now Sibun River), and the Rio Balis which is presumed to be the Belize River and coming from the Mayan word belix meaning 'muddy waters'. Other suggestions of a Spanish pronunciation of the name of Peter Wallace, a Scot who did have a small settlement named after him but not when, or even if, he was ever here, are likely muthical. With French and African derivations similarly creative from an etymological perspective.

Belmopan has been the capital city since 1973, three years after central government had relocated here. It is the smallest capital city, in terms of population, in all of the Americas and is only the third largest settlement in the country. However the place is little more than 50 years old, building beginning as recently as 1960 when the city of Belize was well-nigh destroyed by a hurricane. Such a recent origin means the origins of the name are well known, this is a union of two rivers - the Belize and the Mopan, their confluence found nearby.

San Ignacio is the second largest settlement in Belize by population, yet still only ranks as a town. It was originally named El Cayo by the Spanich, cayo meaning 'island' and an apt description of a place surrounded by water. The modern name is the Spanish version of Saint Ignatius.

Orange Walk Town is the capital of Orange Walk District, both originating in the fruit. However the town's nickname of Sugar City is more accurate, this being the hub of sugar production in Belize where sugar is its leading industry. Under Mayan rule the place was known as Holpatin, the meaning of which is unknown.

Dangriga was once the second largest city in the country and has enjoyed a revival in recent decades, principally through the return to Garifuna culture. These Carib people had first settled the region before the British arrived in 1832, naming the place from the Garifuna word meaning 'standing waters'.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Belarus Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Belarus and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital city of Minsk.

Minsk is first recorded in an 11th century text written in Old East Slavic as Mensk. Later we find Miensk and Minsk, all of which are derived from the river name of Men. Despite a number of theories, the origin of the river name remains unknown.

Dzyarzhynsk had formerly been called Koidanova, Kojdanau, and Koidanov, until renamed in June 1932 in honour of Felix Dzerzhinsky, a famous Bolshevik and chief of the Soviet secret police, he being born near the city.

Zaslawye was founded in AD 985 by Valdimir the Great. He left his wife Rogneda and son Izyaslav of Polotsk here while on his travels, his son giving the place its name.

Krupki is one of those names where the grammar is not clear. Hence the origin is known although the meaning could either be interpreted as '(where) grain is ground' or more likely 'the grain mill'.

Vitebsk has developed around the harbour on the Vitba River. Clearly the river has given the city its name although the origin of the river name is unknown.

Orsha is another city in Belarus once named after its river. However here we not only know the city's earlier name of Rsha but also know the Rsha River is derived from a Baltic root word rus meaning 'flowing slowly'. The modern form simply a variation on the original.

Navapolatsk is close to the city of Polatsk and means 'new Polatsk'. The town was established as recently as 1958, by those from the following city.

Polotsk is another which takes its name from the local river. The Polota River is an Old East Slavic name, meaning 'falling into' this describes its confluence with the Dvina River.

Lepel's origins are confused for it is unclear as to even which language the name comes from. Perhaps this is lepene and thus 'the lake between the groves of lime trees'; or maybe this is from the Belarusian for 'where advanced pottery is made' or even the boast that it is 'the best place to live'. Three very different meanings from three well-nigh identical words showing how difficult defining a place name can be.

Dubrovna is an ancient name, one coming from the Proto-Slavic term for a 'forest of oak trees' - this is recognised by the inclusion of the leaves and fruit of this tree in the coat of arms.

Dokshytsy is first recorded in the early fifteenth century and is named for the many tributaries or doxyczahe in this area.

Grodno derives its name from the Old East Slavic gorodit meaning 'to fence in' or 'to enclose'.

Ashmyany once stood on land held by Lithuania, with its name coming from the river. Hence the Oshmianka River gave the town its name, although then it was the Asmena River from akumo meaning 'stone'. Note the modern version is the plural.

Navahrudak was founded around the 11th century, the name possibly having the same origins as Novogorodok or 'the new little town' as it is listed in the middle of the 13th century.

Slonim is mentioned as such in 1252, with alternative versions as Uslonim and Vslonim. It is thought to come from the Slavic zaslona meaning 'a screen', this pointing to it being a southern outpost of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Occasionally there are suggestions of this coming from slon, although nobody really thinks the place names comes from the Polish word for 'elephant'.

Lida is another place name taken from its local river. Here the Lidzeya literally means 'to fuse' or 'to cast' but in this context is a pointer to a forest clearing.

Babruysk shares an origin with the Babruyka River in likely coming from Belarusian babyor meaning 'beaver'. Pollution and hunting has meant neither the city nor the river have seen a beaver in its natural habitat for more than 150 years.

Vawkavysk is traditionally held to originate from the local dialect where wolkow isk means 'searching for wolves' or wolkow wisk meaning 'the howling of wolves' with the river named before the town. This traditional relies on the name being an ancient one and given to the territory before the river or the settlement. Hence toponymists give a much later origin, one based on a single manuscript dating from somewhere around 1600. It tells of this being an area of great forest through which weaved the Nietupa River, giving travellers the problem of having to weave along narrow paths to either cross or avoid it. The forest also contained a cabin, this the home of Voloko and Visek, two robbers preying on every traveller passing through the forest. When one Prince Vladislav Zabeyko heard of these attacks he set out to find and kill these men. While the bodies of the men hung from a nearby tree to be fed on by the local birds, the first buildings of the new settlement were built on the site of the robbers' cabin. When all trace of the two bodies had vanished a large stone was placed there to warn others of the vengeance meted out to anyone who dared to use the forest for criminal purposes. This stone later incorporated in the building of the temple.

To find such a story as that behind the apparent origins of Vawkavysk promoted by toponymists is almost shocking. Indeed we would expect this to be the traditional tale. Note this narrative is from a single document, is from a much later date than most place names, and the absolute proof comes from the river. While the Nietupa River provided an apparent barrier to travellers in the sixteenth century, there is no major river here today, nor any water course which might prove difficult to cross.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Djibouti Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time to cast my net a little wider. This time Djibouti and a look at some of its largest settlements and most interesting names and starting with the capital.

Djibouti City gave its name to the country, the city thought to have originated as the Afar word gabouri meaning 'plate'. This would have been a ceremonial item, a plate woven from the fibres of doum-palms.

Tadjoura comes from Afar, where the noun tagor, or tagar in the plural, speaks of 'that which has goatskin flasks for drawing water'. This should not be taken overly literally and is understood as simply speaking of 'an abundance of water'.

Dikhil is from the Somali language where dikhil simply refers to 'a watering hole'.

Loyada gets its name from the Afar Le-adu meaning 'the white watering place'. This became Loowya adde in Somali, changing the meaning slightly to 'with white calves'. Note the French spelling of Loyada is today increasingly seen as the Somali Lawya caddo.

Considering the location it should not be overly unsurprising to find all these place names to be based on a supply of water.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.