Proto-Indo European

In many of my posts on etymology I have spoken about Proto-Indo European, the language from the end of the last Ice Age which has given rise to almost all the tongues across Europe, the Middle East and the Indian sub-continent. I thought it about time I posted an image of the language family tree with Proto-Indo-European at the hub. I say an image, because having tried to explain it in writing several times, the visual image is undoubtedly much easier to understand. Actually a number of images, because the complexity requires a number of different angles on that tree.

That covers the spoken word, but it is worthwhile mentioning the written word, especially as Proto-Indo-European had no written form. The oldest written language, with the earliest known records, is generally considered to be Sumerian, a language spoken in Mesopotamia around 3500 BC. While Sumerian is no longer spoken, its written form is the earliest evidence of a language system in existence. Other contenders for the title of oldest language, including those still spoken today, include Egyptian and Tamil, which also have documented histories dating back thousands of years.

Kenya Place Names Explained

Having blogged samples of my books on English place names and also examined the etymologies of the nations of the world and their respective capitals I thought it time I cast my net a little wider. As English place names share some links to other tongues it would be interesting to see if any of the elements contributing to our place names could be found elsewhere. Continuing an alphabetical tour of the world and a look at the largest Kenyan cities.

Nairobi derives its name from the River Nairobi, itself the Maasai phrase Enkare Nairobi or 'cool water'.

Mombasa, to understand this name we have to go back to pre-colonnial days of the Portuguese. Folklore speaks of the founding of the settlement by two rulers, the pagan queen Mwana Mkisi and Shehe Mvita. Mkisi founded Kongowea, the original settlement on what is now known as Mombasa Island. Mkisi comes from ukisi or 'holy' in the liLongo language. Similarly Kongowea is the Swahili form of Kongo. On the arrival of the Portuguese in 1502 the place first became known by two names: Mvita in Swahili and Manbasa in Arabic, both having the same origin and meaning.

Kisumu was founded as a trading post, with the name either from the local adhi kisuma 'I'm going to trade' or an Anglicised version of kusuma, the Maragoli word for 'trading'. Either way the name is true to its origins.

Eldoret is based on the Maasai phrase Ole Mpere N Tomito and means 'stony river'. This is the Sosiani, a tributary of the Nile.

Kikuyu is named after the Kikuyu people, they took their name from the Swahili Gikuyu meaning 'large sycamore tree'.

Kitui, a name also seen for Kitui County, comes from the many metalworkers who settled here before the Europeans arrived and describes 'a place where iron goods are made'.

Thika has two possible origins, either the Kikuyu word guthika 'to bury' and a reminder of two Maasai tribes who fought a great battle; or perhaps the Maasai sika or 'subbing something off the edge' and a topographical description.

Karuri derives its name from the main chief, the Karuri Wa Gakure.

Nyeri is where the British defeated the native Kikuyu warriors a little over a century ago. The Maasai warriors referred to this as Na-aier 'the little hill'.

Mumias is named after the King Nabongo Mumia, ruler of Wanga.

Ngong is the Maasai word for 'knuckles', a delightful reference to the four peaks of the overlooking ridge of land.

Litein is derived from the word liteito, a stone used for sharpening iron objects in the times before the Europeans arrived and showed the locals better ways of producing the casting.

Kericho may be from kerichek, a Kipsigis word meaning 'medicine' as this was where the first hospital was built by the British at the beginning of the 20th century. I say 'may' because this does sound rather stretching the truth.

Kakamega is a modern name, one apparently derived from a word meaning 'pinching', a description of the European settlers attempts to feed themselves the traditional maize meal dish without using cutlery. This does not seem overly likely.

Kapsabet comes from the local kap sabit or 'the place of life'.

Bungoma is from the Bukusu word engoma or 'drums'. This being the meeting place for Bukusu elders who would be summoned by the sound of the drums.

Webuye, possibly one of the best origins I have ever discovered, for it is named after a cobbler who once repaired shoes for the railway workers.

Note the spellings of the places are English as the piece is written in English.

Etymology of European Capital Cities (M to Z)

Following on from the previous post, the completion of the alphabetical list of European capital cities with their meaning.

Madrid, Spain - a Moorish fort once stood here named Majrit. While the modern name certainly comes from this early name the meaning has never been understood.

Minsk, Belarus - undoubtedly a lost river name related to Men, Mena, Menka, and Main, all ultimately from the Indo-European moinia or 'marsh'. The modern river through Minsk is the Svisloch, so perhaps this represents an early or alternative name.

Monaco, Monaco - during the sixth and seventh centuries BC the rock on which the city now stands was home to a Greek temple to the god Hercules the Hermit. Here is the link to the name coming from the Greek monoikos speaking of the 'hermit, monk'.

Moscow, Russia - coming from the Moskva river which flows through the city, there are several suggestions for the origin of the river name. If this is Slavonic moskva, which does seem the most likely, this is 'damp, marshy'; Slavonic mostkva describes 'bridge, water'; while Finno-Ugrian moska va refers ro 'the ford where calves are raised'.

Nicosia, Cyprus - it seems this is a result of the French-speaking Crusaders who pronounced the Greek name of Lefkosia as Nicosie, seemingly Italian influence giving the modern Nicosia. The Greek name comes from the man who rebuilt it in 300BC, Lefkonas being the son of Ptolemy I.

Oslo, Norway - once thought to be a name from Indo-European os with the River Lo giving 'the mouth of the Lo', this is now seen as an early error and the river name is derived from the place. Today it is generally accepted to be either 'the meadow by the hill' or 'the meadow where gods are worshipped' and derived from Old Norse.

Paris, France - this comes from the tribe who lived here, the Parisii. This raises the question as to the origin of the tribal name. Possibly this represents Gaulish par 'ship', suggesting these men were known as sailors or perhaps ship-builders.

Podgorica, Montenegro - situated close to Gorica, a hill name meaning simply 'hill', this place name describes its location 'under the hill'.

Prague, Czech Republic - while the name is disputed, the most popular derivation is from the Czech praziti 'place where wood is burned'. A second definition gives Slavonic prati, literally 'to work' it would refer to the dykes constructed in the river to hold fish.

Reykjavik, Iceland - an island known for its hot geysers and this is the meaning of the name. Here Icelandic reyka precedes Old Norse vek to refer to 'the smoke of the inlet'.

Riga, Latvia - founded in the twelfth century this is from Slavonic reka meaning 'river'. Note the river through Riga today is the Dvina, however there was once another called the Reka which silted up and no longer flows.

Rome, Italy - the city stands on the Tiber, a river previously known as the Ruma. This is thought be of Etruscan origin meaning 'to flow'.

San Marino, San Marino - a republic founded around the end of the third century as a religious communiy by St Marinus, a stone cutter whose name in Italian becomes San Marino.

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina - comes from Bosnian saray evo giving 'the field around the palace'. It could be argued the first element represents Persian shahr or Turkish sehir, however neither change the meaning greatly as they both refer, albeit indirectly, to a centre of government.

Skopje, Macedonia - a site which has been inhabited for at least 6,000 years and known by the Latin name of Scupi. The meaning is uncertain, however it seems this has remained largely unchanged for millennia, certainly in use when this was a Greco-Roman fortress town. Considering its strategic importance this is the most likely origin of the name.

Sofia, Bulgaria - a place where the name has changed depending upon who was in control here. When first settled by the seventh century BC it was called Serdica, the Thracian tribe called the Serds founding the settlement. When the Slavs moved here over a thousand years later, they mistook the name to be from sered, the Slavonic for 'centre'. Move forward to the eleventh century AD and the Byzantine empire referred to the place as Triaditsa, a religious reference to the Holy Trinity. That religious idea is perpetuated in the modern name, itself from the Greek meaning 'wisdom' in a theological sense.

Stockholm, Sweden - whereas the suffix is undoubtedly holm 'drier raised land', the first element is by no means certain. It may represent stak 'bay' or stock 'post, pole' and a marker of some description.

Tallinn, Estonia - prior to the First World War this was known as Revel, thought to be from Danish revele or 'sandbank'. The Danish connection is seen in the modern name, itself from Estonian taani linna 'the town of the Danes', the area ruled by the Danes from 1227 to 1346.

Tblisi, Georgia - from the Georgian word tbili meaning 'warm', a reference to the warm mineral springs found here.

Tirana, Albania - from the ancient name for Tuscany, which came from the Greek and still seen in the name of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Clearly an early link with the Etruscans.

Vaduz, Lichtenstein - possibly Romanesque avadutg 'water' or from Latin vallis 'valley'.

Valletta, Malta - for once we not only know the meaning but also the man himself. Following victory over the Turks in 1565, this city was founded by, and named after, Jean Parisot de la Vallette, Grand Master of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem.

Vatican City, Vatican City - represents the Latin name for the hill on which this place stands. Mons Vaticanus took its name from vaticinia 'the place of divination', which shows the holiest place in Catholicism was named after a pagan shrine.

Vienna, Austria - is named after the River Vienna, it meets the Danube here. The river name is from Celtic, possibly vedunia meaning 'tree' or vindo 'white' and thus pointing to a stone building. Either way it is clear reference is to a very short section of riverbank in a river some 21 miles long, hence this name was relevant to only a small part and would have had other names elsewhere along its course, as indeed would apply to any river or stream.

Vilnius, Lithuania - another from the local river. Here the River Viliya (also known as the Nyaris) is derived from a Slavonic word meaning 'winding'.

Warsaw, Poland - it would be a surprise if a capital city anywhere on the globe has more stories told about its origins. The most likely origin is Warsz ev 'belong to a man called Warsz', although Hungarian varos or 'fortified town cannot be ruled out entirely. We can be sure it does not come from the twins War and Sawa, said to have been found by the king and his hunting party. Neither does it originate in the supposed cry by those on the cargo rafts to their cooks in "Warz, Eva!" meaning "Broth, Eve!"

Yerevan, Armenia - the only thing certain about this name is its great age. Of the many suggestions only two seem realistic: either 'the abode of the god Aru' or perhaps from Armenian yerevan meaning 'to appear', when the sense would be a mystery.

Zagreb, Croatia - while often said to be from German graben 'trench, ditch', it seems more likely to be from a related Slavonic word saying this settlement lay 'beyond the ditch'.

Etymology of European Capital Cities (A to L)

With Europe very much in the news over recent months, from finances to the February freeze, I have heard the names of many capital cities mentioned. Inevitably I was soon distracted by the origins of these names, rather than showing interest in the news.

Amsterdam, Netherlands - no surprise to find this is 'the dam on the River Amstel' on which the city stands and itself from Old Dutch aerne stelle meaning 'the area abounding with water'.

Andorra la Vella, Andorra - undoubtedly a very old place name and thus of very uncertain origins. The best explanation offered to date is the suggestion this is related to Basque andurrial meaning 'heath'.

Ankara, Turkey - by the seventh century BC this was known by the Phrygian name Ankire, perhaps featuring the Indo-European root ank 'angled, crooked'

Astana, Kazahkhstan - in the native tongue astana means 'capital', but this is itself derived from Persian for 'threshold, border point' and here understood to refer to where the court or ruling body is to be found.

Athens, Greece - ask any Greek or Athenian and they would have said it was named after the goddess Athene. However there is good reason to believe it is older and taken from the Pelasgians who occupied much of the Balkan peninsula more than five thousand years ago, in which case this means 'height, hill'.

Baku, Ajerbaijan - two possible origins for Baku, although neither is certain. The popular explanation is from Arabic through Persian, where baadku describes 'a mountain wind'. Another suggestion is Iranian abad ku, literally 'town of fire' and referring to some supposed worship of fire.

Belgrade, Serbia - the first stronghold was built here by a Celtic tribe around 2,500 years ago. This is from a Slavonic word meaning 'white fortress', telling us (rather unusually for the time) it was made from stone.

Berlin, Germany - another very old place name and again one where the origin is uncertain. Suggestions include the popular idea this contains an early word for 'bear', although there has also been 'evidence' showing diverse meanings as 'lake, hill, dame, court, customs, sandy', the list seemingly endless.

Bern, Switzerland - no surprise to find the first element is compared to the previous name, although this is no evidence this represents anything to do with the German for 'bear'. A more likely origin is the Indo-European ber or 'marshy place'.

Bratislava, Slovakia - its location means it has been influenced by many peoples and thus many languages, resulting in the place known by a number of different names. Bratislava was only offically adopted in 1919, although the name was first seen eighty years earlier when scholar Pavel Jozeg Safarrik suggested earlier names showed an association with Bohemian ruler Bretislav I.

Brussels, Belgium - a name from bruoc sella and a reminder this was 'the settlement in the marshes'.

Bucharest, Romania - traditionally held to be named after its found, a fifteenth century shepherd named Bucur. However the city was certainly established well before this and, while the origin is not certain, is related to Albanian bucur for 'pleasant beautiful' or the Romanian definition 'to rejoice'.

Budapest, Hungary - as many will be aware Budapest was two towns before the official merging in 1872. Not that this could ever be a physical merger as they lie on opposing banks of the Danube. Buda, on the right bank, and Pest, on the left, are of Slavonic origin and both have two equally plausible meanings: buda is either 'building' or 'water'; while pest is either 'cave' or 'hearth'. It is certainly not connected with the name for the Roman encampment here, their Aquincum speaking of 'ample water'.

Chisinau, Moldova - as with many names in areas which have been influenced by many peoples and languages, there are disputes over this name. If this is Romanian, then chisla noua speaks of 'the new spring'; if the Romanian name was originally Hungarian then this represents kis Jeno' the small place of the Jeno tribe'. There is alos the Russian version of Kishinev, which was how the name was introduced to English.

Copenhagen, Denmark - finally a name where we can be certain of the origins, this is from Danish kiopman havn 'the harbour of the merchants'.

Dublin, Republic of Ireland - and another name where the origins are certain. Here Irish dubh linn tells us the place was built at 'the black lake'. The contemporary Irish name is Baile Atha Cliath meaning 'the town of the ford of the hurdle'.

Helsinki, Finland - founded as a town by the Swedes in 1550 it was then known as Helsingfors, Helsing being the name of the tribe and fors the Swedish for 'waterfall'. They relocated the entire settlement to its present site in 1648, hence the 'waterfall' on the River Wanda is no longer really relevant, while Helsinki is simply the Finnish version of the original name.

Kiev, Ukraine - for once the traditional narrative appears to be correct. Legend has it the ferryman Kiy founded this settlement on the River Dnieper, although others claim one Prince Kiy gave his name to the place he captured in the ninth century.

Lisbon, Portugal - the Phoenician's were probably behind the name of Lisbon. However it is difficult to see if this is derived from ippo 'fence' or alis ubbo 'joyful bay'. We can be certain the traditional story of being named after the founder Ulysses, even though his Phoenician name was Olisipo.

Ljubljana, Slovenia - the most likely explanation is this place was named after the Ljubljanica river which flows through it, although back formation certainly cannot be ruled out. The version is from Laibach, as both city and river were known by the Middle Ages (and in use until 1918), itself from Old High German and speaking of 'the standing water liable to cause much flooding'.

London, United Kingdom - all will be aware to the Romans this was Londinium. However this is not the origin, the name was certainly much earlier and, as with the vast majoirty of apparently 'Roman' place names is simply a 'Latinicised' version of the existing name, best guess at which would be a tribal name, maybe Londinos.

Luxembourg, Luxembourg - as with many English place names this is derived from the Saxon peoples who referred to this place as Lucilinburhuc. Here Old Saxon luttil burug speaks of this as 'the little town'.